Narendra Modi

                                              

Narendra Damodardas Modi ( 17 September 1950) is an Indian politician who has served as the prime minister of India since 2014. Modi was the chief minister of Gujarat from 2001 to 2014 and is the member of parliament (MP) for Varanasi. He is a member of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), a right-wing Hindutva paramilitary volunteer organisation. He is the longest-serving prime minister outside the Indian National Congress.

Modi was born and raised in Vadnagar, Bombay State, where he completed his secondary education. He was introduced to the RSS at the age of eight. Modi became a full-time worker for the RSS in Gujarat in 1971. The RSS assigned him to the BJP in 1985 and he rose through the party hierarchy, becoming general secretary in 1998. In 2001, Modi was appointed chief minister of Gujarat and elected to the legislative assembly soon after. His administration is considered complicit in the 2002 Gujarat riots, and has been criticised for its management of the crisis. According to official records, a little over 1,000 people were killed, three-quarters of whom were Muslim; independent sources estimated 2,000 deaths, mostly Muslim. A Special Investigation Team appointed by the Supreme Court of India in 2012 found no evidence to initiate prosecution proceedings against him. While his policies as chief minister were credited for encouraging economic growth, his administration was criticised for failing to significantly improve health, poverty and education indices in the state.

In the 2014 Indian general election, Modi led the BJP to a parliamentary majority, the first for a party since 1984. His administration increased direct foreign investment, and reduced spending on healthcare, education, and social-welfare programmes. Modi began a high-profile sanitation campaign, and weakened or abolished environmental and labour laws. His demonetisation of banknotes in 2016 and introduction of the Goods and Services Tax in 2017 sparked controversy. Modi's administration launched the 2019 Balakot airstrike against an alleged terrorist training camp in Pakistan. The airstrike failed, but the action had nationalist appeal. Modi's party won the 2019 general election which followed. In its second term, his administration revoked the special status of Jammu and Kashmir, and introduced the Citizenship Amendment Act, prompting widespread protests, and spurring the 2020 Delhi riots in which Muslims were brutalised and killed by Hindu mobs. Three controversial farm laws led to sit-ins by farmers across the country, eventually causing their formal repeal. Modi oversaw India's response to the COVID-19 pandemic, during which, according to the World Health Organization's estimates, 4.7 million Indians died. In the 2024 general election, Modi's party lost its majority in the lower house of Parliament and formed a government leading the National Democratic Alliance coalition. Following a terrorist attack in Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir, Modi presided over the 2025 India–Pakistan conflict, which resulted in a ceasefire.

Under Modi's tenure, India has experienced democratic backsliding and has shifted towards an authoritarian style of government, with a cult of personality centered around him. As prime minister, he has received consistently high approval ratings within India. Modi has been described as engineering a political realignment towards right-wing politics. He remains a highly controversial figure domestically and internationally, over his Hindu nationalist beliefs and handling of the Gujarat riots, which have been cited as evidence of a majoritarian and exclusionary social agenda.

Early life and education- Narendra Damodardas Modi was born on 17 September 1950 to a Gujarati family of Other Backward Class background and Hindu faith in Vadnagar, Mehsana district, Bombay State. He was the third of six children born to Damodardas Mulchand Modi (c. 1915–1989) and Hiraben Modi (1923–2022). According to Modi and his neighbours, he worked infrequently in his father's tea stall in the Vadnagar railway station.

Modi completed his higher secondary education in Vadnagar in 1967; his teachers described him as an average student and a keen, gifted debater with an interest in theatre. He preferred playing larger-than-life characters in theatrical productions, which has influenced his political image.

When Modi was eight years old, he was introduced to the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and began attending its local shakhas. There, he met Lakshmanrao Inamdar, who inducted Modi as a balswayamsevak in the RSS and became his political mentor. While Modi was training with the RSS, he also met Vasant Gajendragadkar and Nathalal Jaghda, Bharatiya Jana Sangh leaders who in 1980 helped found the BJP's Gujarat unit. As a teenager, he was enrolled in the National Cadet Corps.

Kailasa Temple, Ellora

 The Kailash or Kailashanatha temple is the largest of the rock-cut Hindu temples at the Ellora Caves in Aurangabad district, Maharashtra of Maharashtra, India.

A megalith carved into a cliff face, it is considered one of the most remarkable cave temples in the world because of its size, architecture, and sculptural treatment. It has been called "the climax of the rock-cut phase of Indian architecture". The top of the structure over the sanctuary is 32.6 metres (107 ft) above the level of the court below. Although the rock face slopes downwards from the rear of the temple to the front, archaeologists believe it was sculpted from a single rock.

The Kailasa temple is the largest of the 34 Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain cave temples and monasteries known collectively as the Ellora Caves, ranging for over two kilometres along the sloping basalt cliff at the site. Most of the excavation of the temple is generally attributed to the eighth century Rashtrakuta king Krishna I, with some elements completed later. The temple architecture shows traces of Pallava and Chalukya styles. The temple contains a number of relief and free-standing sculptures on a grand scale equal to the architecture, though only traces remain of the paintings which originally decorated it.

Kailasha Temple from the rock behind it

History- Kailasa temple lacks a dedicatory inscription, but there is no doubt that it was commissioned by a Rashtrakuta ruler. Its construction is generally attributed to the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I, based on two epigraphs that link the temple to "Krishnaraja".

The Vadodara copper-plate inscription of Karkaraja II records the grant of a village in present-day Gujarat. It mentions Krishnaraja as the patron of Kailasanatha, and also mentions a Shiva temple at Elapura. It states that the king constructed a temple so wondrous that even the gods and the architect were astonished. Most scholars believe that this is a reference to the Kailasanatha Shiva temple at Ellora.

The Kadaba grant of Govinda Prabhutavarsha similarly appears to credit Krishnaraja with the construction of the temple.

However, the attribution of the temple to Krishna I is not completely certain because these epigraphs are not physically connected to the caves, and do not date Krishnaraja's reign. Moreover, the land grants issued by Krishna's successors do not contain any references to the Kailasa temple.

The Kailasa temple features the use of several distinct architectural and sculptural styles. This, combined with its relatively large size, has led some scholars to believe that its construction spanned the reigns of several kings. Some of the temple reliefs feature the same style as the one used in the Dashavatara cave, which is located next to the temple. The Dashavatara cave contains an inscription of Krishna's predecessor and nephew Dantidurga. Based on this, art historian Hermann Goetz (1952) theorized that the construction of the Kailasa temple began during the reign of Dantidurga. Krishna consecrated its first complete version, which was much smaller than the present-day temple. According to Goetz, Dantidurga's role in the temple construction must have been deliberately suppressed, as Krishna sidelined Dantidurga's sons to claim the throne after his death. Based on analysis of the different styles, Goetz further hypothesized that the later Rashtrakuta rulers also extended the temple. These rulers include Dhruva Dharavarsha, Govinda III, Amoghavarsha, and Krishna III. According to Goetz, the 11th century Paramara ruler Bhoja commissioned the elephant-lion frieze on the lower plinth during his invasion of Deccan, and added a new layer of paintings. Finally, Ahilyabai Holkar commissioned the last layer of paintings in the temple.

M. K. Dhavalikar (1982) analyzed the architecture of the temple, and concluded that the major part of the temple was completed during the reign of Krishna I, although he agreed with Goetz that some other parts of the temple complex can be dated to the later rulers. According to Dhavalikar, the following components were completed by Krishna: the main shrine, its gateway, the Nandi mandapa, the lower storey, the elephant–lion frieze, the court elephants, and the victory pillars. Dhavalikar admits that the most important sculpture of the temple, which depicts Ravana shaking the Kailasa mountain, appears to have been built after the main edifice. This sculpture is considered one of the finest pieces of Indian art, and it is possible that the temple came to be known as Kailasa after it. Dhavalikar theorizes that this sculpture was carved around 3–4 decades after the completion of the main shrine, on the basis of its similarity to the tandava sculpture in the Lankeshvar cave. H. Goetz dated this relief to the reign of Krishna III. Like Goetz, Dhavalikar attributes some other structures in the temple complex to the later rulers. These include the Lankeshvar cave and the shrine of the river goddesses. Dhavalikar further theorizes that the excavation of the Dashavatara cave, which began during the reign of Dantidurga, was completed during the reign of Krishna I. This explains the similarities between the sculptures in the two caves.

Shefali Jariwala

 Shefali Jariwala (15 December 1982 – 27 June 2025) was an Indian actress and model who appeared in several Hindi music videos, reality shows and films. She is known for the music video Kaanta Laga. She participated in the dance reality shows Nach Baliye 5 and Nach Baliye 7 along with Parag Tyagi. In 2019, she participated in Bigg Boss 13. In 2018, she played the female lead in ALT Balaji's web series Baby Come Naa opposite Shreyas Talpade.

Early life and education- Jariwala was born on 15 December 1982 in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India, into a Gujarati family. She studied engineering in Information Technology from Sardar Patel University in Anand. Her father worked as a chartered accountant, and her mother was employed by the State Bank of India.

Jariwala was a graduate with degree in Computer Applications.

Career- Jariwala began her career in the entertainment industry with appearances in music videos. She rose to prominence with the 2002 remix video of the song Kaanta Laga, which became a popular hit and brought her widespread recognition. The success of the video led to her being popularly referred to as the Kaanta Laga girl, a moniker she has acknowledged in interviews.

In subsequent years, she featured in various other music videos and made appearances in films, including Mujhse Shaadi Karogi. Apart from Bollywood, Jariwala has also worked in South Indian film industry and web series. She made her first reality television appearance in 2008 on the dance show Boogie Woogie. She later participated in Nach Baliye 5 (2012–2013), and in Nach Baliye 7 (2015–2016) alongside her husband Parag Tyagi. In November 2019, she entered the 13th season of the reality television show Bigg Boss as a wild card contestant. Her on-screen dynamic with fellow contestant Sidharth Shukla garnered significant attention from viewers, and her participation contributed to renewed public recognition.

Personal life- Jariwala was married to musician Harmeet Singh from Meet Brothers in 2004. The couple divorced in 2009 when Shefali pressed charges against Harmeet. Later, she married actor Parag Tyagi in 2015.

In public interviews, Jariwala has spoken about being diagnosed with epilepsy during her teenage years. She reportedly experienced her first seizure at the age of 15 and underwent medical treatment for approximately ten years. She has credited yoga and fitness practices with helping her manage the condition and rebuild her self-confidence.

Jariwala died due to cardiac arrest on the night of 27 June 2025.

Culinary arts

                                    

Culinary arts are the cuisine arts of food preparation, cooking, and presentation of food, usually in the form of meals. People working in this field – especially in establishments such as restaurants – are commonly called chefs or cooks, although, at its most general, the terms culinary artist and culinarian are also used.

Expert chefs are in charge of making meals that are both aesthetically beautiful and delicious. This often requires understanding of food science, nutrition, and diet. Delicatessens and relatively large institutions like hotels and hospitals rank as their principal workplaces after restaurants.

The origins of culinary arts began with primitive humans roughly 2 million years ago. Various theories exist as to how early humans used fire to cook meat. According to anthropologist Richard Wrangham, author of Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human, primitive humans simply tossed a raw hunk of meat into the flames and watched it sizzle. Another theory claims humans may first have savoured roasted meat by chance when the flesh of a beast killed in a forest fire was found to be more appetizing and easier to chew and digest than conventional raw meat.

Culinary techniques improved with the introduction of earthenware and stoneware, the domestication of livestock, and advancements in agriculture. In early civilizations, the primary employers of professional chefs were kings, aristocrats, or priests. The divide between professional chefs cooking for the wealthy and peasants cooking for their families engendered the development of many cuisines.

Much of the study of culinary arts in Europe was organized by Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin, famous for his quote "Tell me what you eat, and I will tell you what you are", which has since been mistranslated and simplified into "You are what you eat". Other people helped to parse out the different parts of food science and gastronomy. Over time, increasingly deeper and more detailed studies into foods and the culinary arts has led to a greater wealth of knowledge.

In Asia, a similar path led to a separate study of the culinary arts, which later essentially merged with the Western counterpart. In the modern international marketplace, there is no longer a distinct divide between Western and Eastern foods. Culinary arts students today, generally speaking, are introduced to the different cuisines of many different cultures from around the world.

The culinary arts, in the Western world, as a craft and later as a field of study, began to evolve at the end of the Renaissance period. Prior to this, chefs worked in castles, cooking for kings and queens, as well as their families, guests, and other workers of the castle. As Monarchical rule became phased out as a modality, the chefs took their craft to inns and hotels. From here, the craft evolved into a field of study.

Before cooking institutions, professional cooks were mentors for individual students who apprenticed under them. In 1879, the first cooking school was founded in the United States: the Boston Cooking School. This school standardized cooking practices and recipes, and laid the groundwork for the culinary arts schools that would follow.

Techniques- A chef preparing food on a metal baking sheet topped with parchment paperAn integral part of the culinary arts are the tools, known as cooking or kitchen utensils, that are used by both professional chefs and home cooks alike. Professionals in the culinary arts often call these utensils by the French term "batterie de cuisine". 472–476  These tools vary in materials and use. Cooking implements are made with anything from wood, glass, and various types of metals, to the newer silicone and plastic that can be seen in many kitchens today.

Within the realm of the culinary arts, there is a wide array of different cooking techniques that originate from various cultures and continue to develop over time as these techniques are shared between cultures and progress with new technology. Different cooking techniques require the use of certain tools, foods and heat sources in order to produce a specific desired result. The professional kitchen may utilize certain techniques that a home cook might not, such as the use of an expensive professional grill. 

Water purification

Water purification is the process of removing undesirable chemicals, biological contaminants, suspended solids, and gases from water. The goal is to produce water that is fit for specific purposes. Most water is purified and disinfected for human consumption, but water purification may also be carried out for a variety of other purposes, including medical, pharmacological, chemical, and industrial applications. The history of water purification includes a wide variety of methods. The methods used include physical processes such as filtration, sedimentation, and distillation; biological processes such as slow sand filters or biologically active carbon; chemical processes such as flocculation and chlorination; and the use of electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light.

Water purification can reduce the concentration of particulate matter including suspended particles, parasites, bacteria, algae, viruses, and fungi as well as reduce the concentration of a range of dissolved and particulate matter.

The standards for drinking water quality are typically set by governments or by international standards. These standards usually include minimum and maximum concentrations of contaminants, depending on the intended use of the water.

A visual inspection cannot determine if water is of appropriate quality. Simple procedures such as boiling or the use of a household point of use water filter are not sufficient for treating all possible contaminants that may be present in water from an unknown source. Even natural spring water—considered safe for all practical purposes in the 19th century—must now be tested before determining what kind of treatment, if any, is needed. Chemical and microbiological analysis, while expensive, are the only way to obtain the information necessary for deciding on the appropriate method of purification.

Sources of water- The water emerging from some deep ground water may have fallen as rain many tens, hundreds, or thousands of years ago. Soil and rock layers naturally filter the ground water to a high degree of clarity and often, it does not require additional treatment besides adding chlorine or chloramines as secondary disinfectants. Such water may emerge as springs, artesian springs, or may be extracted from boreholes or wells. Deep ground water is generally of very high bacteriological quality, but the water may be rich in dissolved solids, especially carbonates and sulfates of calcium and magnesium. Depending on the strata through which the water has flowed, other ions may also be present including chloride, and bicarbonate. There may be a requirement to reduce the iron or manganese content of this water to make it acceptable for drinking, cooking, and laundry use. Primary disinfection may also be required. Where groundwater recharge is practised, the groundwater may require additional treatment depending on applicable state and federal regulations.

Typically located in the headwaters of river systems, upland reservoirs are usually sited above any human habitation and may be surrounded by a protective zone to restrict the opportunities for contamination. Bacteria and pathogen levels are usually low, but some bacteria, protozoa or algae will be present. Where uplands are forested or peaty, humic acids can colour the water. Many upland sources have low pH which require adjustment.

Digital marketing

                                   

 Digital marketing is the component of marketing that uses the Internet and online-based digital technologies such as desktop computers, mobile phones, and other digital media and platforms to promote products and services.

It has significantly transformed the way brands and businesses utilize technology for marketing since the 1990s and 2000s. As digital platforms became increasingly incorporated into marketing plans and everyday life, and as people increasingly used digital devices instead of visiting physical shops, digital marketing campaigns have become prevalent, employing combinations of methods. Some of these methods include: search engine optimization (SEO), search engine marketing (SEM), content marketing, influencer marketing, content automation, campaign marketing, data-driven marketing, e-commerce marketing, social media marketing, social media optimization, e-mail direct marketing, display advertising, e-books, and optical disks and games. Digital marketing extends to non-Internet channels that provide digital media, such as television, mobile phones, callbacks, and on-hold mobile ringtones.

The extension to non-Internet channels differentiates digital marketing from online marketing. Digital marketing effectively began in 1990 when the Archie search engine was created as an index for FTP sites. In the 1980s, the storage capacity of computers was already large enough to store huge volumes of customer information. Companies started choosing online techniques, such as database marketing, rather than limited list brokers. Databases allowed companies to track customers' information more effectively, transforming the relationship between buyer and seller.

In the 1990s, the term digital marketing was coined. The first clickable banner ad, the "You Will" campaign by AT&T, went live in 1994, and over the first four months, 44% of all people who saw it clicked on the ad. Early digital marketing efforts focused on simple HTML websites and the burgeoning practice of email marketing, which allowed for direct communication with consumers.

In the 2000s, with increasing numbers of Internet users and the birth of the iPhone, customers began searching for products and making decisions about their needs online first, instead of consulting a salesperson, which created a new problem for the marketing department of a company. In addition, a survey in 2000 in the United Kingdom found that most retailers still needed to register their own domain address. These problems encouraged marketers to find new ways to integrate digital technology into market development. At the same time, PPC advertising, introduced by Google AdWords in 2000, allowed businesses to target specific keywords, making digital marketing more measurable and cost-effective.

The mid-2000s saw the emergence of social media platforms like Facebook (2004), YouTube (2005), and Twitter (2006). These platforms revolutionized digital marketing by facilitating direct and interactive engagement with consumers. In 2007, marketing automation was developed as a response to the ever-evolving marketing climate. Marketing automation is the process by which software is used to automate conventional marketing processes. Marketing automation helps companies segment customers, launch multichannel marketing campaigns, and provide personalized information for customers., based on their specific activities. In this way, users' activity triggers a personal message that is customized to the user in their preferred platform. However, despite the benefits of marketing automation many companies are struggling to adapt it to their everyday uses correctly.

Digital marketing became more sophisticated in the 2000s and the 2010s, when the proliferation of devices capable of accessing digital media led to sudden growth. Statistics produced in 2012 and 2013 showed that digital marketing was still growing. With the development of social media in the 2000s, such as LinkedIn, Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter, consumers became highly dependent on digital electronics in their daily lives. Therefore, they expected a seamless user experience across different channels for searching product information. The change in customer behavior improved the diversification of marketing technology.

Monsoon

 A monsoon is traditionally a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation but is now used to describe seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with annual latitudinal oscillation of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) between its limits to the north and south of the equator. Usually, the term monsoon is used to refer to the rainy phase of a seasonally changing pattern, although technically there is also a dry phase. The term is also sometimes used to describe locally heavy but short-term rains.

The major monsoon systems of the world consist of the West African, Asian–Australian, the North American, and South American monsoons.

The term was first used in English in British India and neighboring countries to refer to the big seasonal winds blowing from the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea in the southwest bringing heavy rainfall to the area.

Monsoon clouds over Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India The etymology of the word monsoon is not wholly certain. The English monsoon came from Portuguese ultimately from Arabic, "perhaps partly via early modern Dutch monsoon".

Asian monsoon- Strengthening of the Asian monsoon has been linked to the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau after the collision of the Indian subcontinent and Asia around 50 million years ago. Because of studies of records from the Arabian Sea and that of the wind-blown dust in the Loess Plateau of China, many geologists believe the monsoon first became strong around 8 million years ago. More recently, studies of plant fossils in China and new long-duration sediment records from the South China Sea led to a timing of the monsoon beginning 15–20 million years ago and linked to early Tibetan uplift. Testing of this hypothesis awaits deep ocean sampling by the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program. The monsoon has varied significantly in strength since this time, largely linked to global climate change, especially the cycle of the Pleistocene ice ages. A study of Asian monsoonal climate cycles from 123,200 to 121,210 years BP, during the Eemian interglacial, suggests that they had an average duration of around 64 years, with the minimum duration being around 50 years and the maximum approximately 80 years, similar to today.

A study of marine plankton suggested that the South Asian Monsoon (SAM) strengthened around 5 million years ago. Then, during ice periods, the sea level fell and the Indonesian Seaway closed. When this happened, cold waters in the Pacific were impeded from flowing into the Indian Ocean. It is believed that the resulting increase in sea surface temperatures in the Indian Ocean increased the intensity of monsoons. In 2018, a study of the SAM's variability over the past million years found that precipitation resulting from the monsoon was significantly reduced during glacial periods compared to interglacial periods like the present day. The Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM) underwent several intensifications during the warming following the Last Glacial Maximum, specifically during the time intervals corresponding to 16,100–14,600 BP, 13,600–13,000 BP, and 12,400–10,400 BP as indicated by vegetation changes in the Tibetan Plateau displaying increases in humidity brought by an intensifying ISM. Though the ISM was relatively weak for much of the Late Holocene, significant glacial accumulation in the Himalayas still occurred due to cold temperatures brought by westerlies from the west.

During the Middle Miocene, the July ITCZ, the zone of rainfall maximum, migrated northwards, increasing precipitation over southern China during the East Asian Summer Monsoon (EASM) while making Indochina drier. During the Late Miocene Global Cooling (LMCG), from 7.9 to 5.8 million years ago, the East Asian Winter Monsoon (EAWM) became stronger as the subarctic front shifted southwards. An abrupt intensification of the EAWM occurred 5.5 million years ago. The EAWM was still significantly weaker relative to today between 4.3 and 3.8 million years ago but abruptly became more intense around 3.8 million years ago as crustal stretching widened the Tsushima Strait and enabled greater inflow of the warm Tsushima Current into the Sea of Japan. Circa 3.0 million years ago, the EAWM became more stable, having previously been more variable and inconsistent, in addition to being enhanced further amidst a period of global cooling and sea level fall. 

Aesthetic Theory

                                                  

Aesthetic Theory is a book by the German philosopher Theodor Adorno, which was culled from drafts written between 1956 and 1969 and ultimately published posthumously in 1970. Although anchored by the philosophical study of art, the book is interdisciplinary and incorporates elements of political philosophy, sociology, metaphysics and other philosophical pursuits in keeping with Adorno's boundary-shunning methodology.

Adorno retraces the historical evolution of art into its paradoxical state of "semi-autonomy" within capitalist modernity, considering the socio-political implications of this progression. Some critics have described the work as Adorno's magnum opus and ranked it among the most important pieces on aesthetics published in the 20th century.

In Aesthetic Theory, Adorno is concerned not only with such standard aesthetic preoccupations as the function of beauty and sublimity in art, but with the relations between art and society. He feels that modern art's freedom from such restrictions as cult and imperial functions that had plagued previous eras of art has led to art's expanded critical capacity and increased formal autonomy. With this expanded autonomy comes art's increased responsibility for societal commentary. However, Adorno does not feel that overtly politicized content is art's greatest critical strength: rather, he champions a more abstracted type of "truth-content". Unlike Kantian or idealist aesthetics, Adorno's aesthetics locates truth-content in the art object, rather than in the perception of the subject. Such content is, however, affected by art's self-consciousness at the hands of its necessary distance from society, which is perceptible in such instances as the dissonances inherent in modern art. Truth-content is ultimately found in the relation between multiple dialectical interactions that emerge from the artwork's position(s) relative to subject and greater societal tradition, as well as internal dialectics within the work itself. Throughout, Adorno praises dramatist Samuel Beckett, to whom the book was dedicated.

Aesthetic Theory was edited by Gretel Adorno (the philosopher's widow) and Rolf Tiedemann from Adorno's working drafts. It was assembled from unfinished manuscripts Adorno had composed between May 4, 1961, and July 16, 1969, mainly between October 25, 1966, and January 24, 1968. A series of revisions were undertaken between September 1968 and July 1969, weeks before his death in August of that year.

An initial English translation by Christian Lenhardt in 1984 broke "the original single-paragraph sections into smaller paragraphs". Robert Hullot-Kentor's 1997 translation attempted to reproduce the mostly paragraph-less presentation of the original text. This translation currently acts as the work's standard English version.

Crochet

 Crochet is a process of creating textiles by using a crochet hook to interlock loops of yarn, thread, or strands of other materials. The name is derived from the French term crochet, which means 'hook'. Hooks can be made from different materials (aluminum, steel, metal, wood, bamboo, bone, etc.), sizes, and types. The key difference between crochet and knitting, beyond the implements used for their production, is that each stitch in crochet is completed before the next one, while knitting keeps many stitches open at a time. Some variant forms of crochet, such as Tunisian crochet and Broomstick lace, do keep multiple crochet stitches open at a time.

The word crochet is derived from the French word crochet, a diminutive of croche, in turn from the Germanic croc, both meaning "hook". It was used in 17th-century French lace-making, where the term Crochetage designated a stitch used to join separate pieces of lace. The word crochet subsequently came to describe both the specific type of textile, and the hooked needle used to produce it.

In 1567, the tailor of Mary, Queen of Scots, Jehan de Compiegne, supplied her with silk thread for sewing and crochet, "soye à coudre et crochetz".

19th century crochet from Orvieto, Italy Knitted textiles survive from as early as the 11th century CE, but the first substantive evidence of crocheted fabric emerges in Europe during the 19th century. Earlier work identified as crochet was commonly made by nålebinding, a different looped yarn technique. There are three main theories for the origin of crochet. Some believe that its beginnings can be traced to the Arab trade route, originating in Arabia and spreading to Tibet and then Spain as well as other Mediterranean countries. The second theory places crochet in South America where it was used as adornment in a primitive tribe's puberty ritual. The third notes the use of crochet in China where early examples of dolls were worked entirely in crochet.

A crocheted purse described in 1823 in Penélopé The first known published instructions for crochet explicitly using that term to describe the craft in its present sense appeared in the Dutch magazine Penélopé in 1823. This includes a colour plate showing five styles of purse, of which three were intended to be crocheted with silk thread. The first is "simple open crochet", a mesh of chain-stitch arches. The second starts in a semi-open form, where chain-stitch arches alternate with equally long segments of slip-stitch crochet, and closes with a star made with "double-crochet stitches" The third purse is made entirely in double-crochet. The instructions prescribe the use of a tambour needle and introduce a number of decorative techniques.

The earliest dated reference in English to garments made of cloth produced by looping yarn with a hook—shepherd's knitting—is in The Memoirs of a Highland Lady by Elizabeth Grant (1797–1830). The journal entry, itself, is dated 1812 but was not recorded in its subsequently published form until some time between 1845 and 1867, and the actual date of publication was first in 1898. Nonetheless, the 1833 volume of Penélopé describes and illustrates a shepherd's hook, and recommends its use for crochet with coarser yarn.

In 1844, one of the numerous books discussing crochet that began to appear in the 1840s states:Crochet needles, sometimes called Shepherds' hooks, are made of steel, ivory, or box-wood. They have a hook at one end similar in shape to a fish-hook, by which the wool or silk is caught and drawn through the work. These instruments are to be procured of various sizes.

Crochet, — a species of knitting originally practised by the peasants in Scotland, with a small hooked needle called a shepherd's hook, — has, within the last seven years, aided by taste and fashion, obtained the preference over all other ornamental works of a similar nature. It derives its present name from the French; the instrument with which it is worked being by them, from its crooked shape, termed 'crochet.' This art has attained its highest degree of perfection in England, whence it has been transplanted to France and Germany, and both countries, although unjustifiably, have claimed the invention.

International Day of Yoga

The International Day of Yoga is a day in recognition of Yoga that is celebrated around the world annually on 21 June following its adoption by the United Nations in 2014. As Yoga exercises have shown significant benefits for physical and mental well-being, it was considered important by the UN to globally promote this wellness practice, which originated in ancient India.

The initiative for Yoga Day was taken by India's prime minister Narendra Modi in his 2014 UN address, and the related resolution received broad global support, with 177 nations co-sponsoring it in the United Nations General Assembly, where it passed unanimously. Subsequently, the first International Yoga Day was celebrated successfully on 21 June 2015, around the world including New York, Paris, Beijing, Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur, Seoul and New Delhi.

In September 2014, India's prime minister Narendra Modi, in his UN address, suggested an annual Day of Yoga on 21 June, as it is the longest day of the year in the Northern Hemisphere and shares a special significance in many parts of the world. Following the initial proposal, the UN adopted the draft resolution, entitled "Day of Yoga", in 2014. The consultations were convened by the delegation of India. In 2015, the Reserve Bank of India issued a 10-rupee commemorative coin to mark the International Day of Yoga. In April 2017, United Nations Postal Administration(UNPA) issued 10 stamps on Asanas on a single sheet to mark International Day of Yoga.

UN Declaration- On 11 December 2014, India's Permanent Representative Asoke Mukherji introduced the draft resolution in the United Nations General Assembly. The draft text received broad support from 177 Member States who sponsored the text, which was adopted without a vote. This initiative found support from many global leaders. A total of 177 nations co-sponsored the resolution, which is the highest number of co-sponsors ever for any UNGA resolution of such nature.

When proposing 21 June as the date, Modi said that the date was the longest day of the year in the northern hemisphere, having special significance in many parts of the world. In the Indian calendars, the summer solstice marks the transition to Dakshinayana. The second full moon after summer solstice is known as Guru Poornima. In Hindu mythology, Shiva, the first yogi, is said to have begun imparting the knowledge of yoga to the rest of mankind on this day, and became the first guru.

Following the adoption of the UN resolution, several leaders of the spiritual movement in India voiced their support for the initiative. The founder of Art of Living, Ravi Shankar, praised Modi's efforts, saying, "It is very difficult for any philosophy, religion or culture to survive without state patronage. Yoga has existed so far almost like an orphan. Now, official recognition by the UN would further spread the benefit of yoga.

Taxonomy (biology)

 In biology, taxonomy is the scientific study of naming, defining and classifying groups of biological organisms based on shared characteristics. Organisms are grouped into taxa, and these groups are given a taxonomic rank; groups of a given rank can be aggregated to form a more inclusive group of higher rank, thus creating a taxonomic hierarchy. The principal ranks in modern use are domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus is regarded as the founder of the current system of taxonomy, having developed a ranked system known as Linnaean taxonomy for categorizing organisms.

With advances in the theory, data and analytical technology of biological systematics, the Linnaean system has transformed into a system of modern biological classification intended to reflect the evolutionary relationships among organisms, both living and extinct.

Definition-The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the discipline remains: the conception, naming, and classification of groups of organisms. As points of reference, recent definitions of taxonomy are presented below:

Theory and practice of grouping individuals into species, arranging species into larger groups, and giving those groups names, thus producing a classification. A field of science that encompasses description, identification, nomenclature, and classification The science of classification, in biology the arrangement of organisms into a classification "The science of classification as applied to living organisms, including the study of means of formation of species, etc." "The analysis of an organism's characteristics for the purpose of classification" "Systematics studies phylogeny to provide a pattern that can be translated into the classification and names of the more inclusive field of taxonomy" 

The varied definitions either place taxonomy as a sub-area of systematics, invert that relationship, or appear to consider the two terms synonymous. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy, or a part of systematics outside taxonomy. For example, definition 6 is paired with the following definition of systematics that places nomenclature outside taxonomy

Systematics: "The study of the identification, taxonomy, and nomenclature of organisms, including the classification of living things with regard to their natural relationships and the study of variation and the evolution of taxa". In 1970, Michener et al. defined "systematic biology" and "taxonomy" in relation to one another as follows

This is a field with a long history that in recent years has experienced a notable renaissance, principally with respect to theoretical content. Part of the theoretical material has to do with evolutionary areas, the rest relates especially to the problem of classification. Taxonomy is that part of Systematics concerned with topics to above.

A whole set of terms including taxonomy, systematic biology, systematics, scientific classification, biological classification, and phylogenetics have at times had overlapping meanings – sometimes the same, sometimes slightly different, but always related and intersecting. The broadest meaning of "taxonomy" is used here. The term itself was introduced in 1813 by de Candolle, in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique. John Lindley provided an early definition of systematics in 1830, although he wrote of "systematic botany" rather than using the term "systematics". Europeans tend to use the terms "systematics" and "biosystematics" for the study of biodiversity as a whole, whereas North Americans tend to use "taxonomy" more frequently. However, taxonomy, and in particular alpha taxonomy, is more specifically the identification, description, and naming of organisms, while "classification" focuses on placing organisms within hierarchical groups that show their relationships to other organisms.

Rani of Jhansi

                                                

The Rani of Jhansi ( Manikarnika Tambe; 1828 or 1835 – 18 June 1858), also known as Rani Lakshmibai, was one of the leading figures of the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The queen consort of the princely state of Jhansi from 1843 to 1853, she assumed its leadership after the outbreak of conflict and fought several battles against the British. Her life and deeds are celebrated in modern India and she remains a potent symbol of Indian nationalism.

Born into a Marathi family in Varanasi, Manikarnika Tambe was married to the raja of Jhansi, Gangadhar Rao, at a young age, taking the name Rani Lakshmibai. The couple had one son but he died young, and so when Gangadhar Rao was on his deathbed in 1853, he adopted a young relative to be his successor. The British East India Company, the overlord of Jhansi, refused to recognise this succession and annexed Jhansi under the Doctrine of Lapse, ignoring the Rani's vigorous protests to the Governor-General Lord Dalhousie.

In May 1857, the Indian troops stationed at Jhansi mutinied and massacred most of the British in the town; the Rani's complicity and participation in these events was and remains contested. She took over rulership of Jhansi and recruited an army to see off incursions from neighbouring states. Although her relations with the British were initially neutral, they decided to treat her as an enemy: Major General Hugh Rose attacked and captured Jhansi in March and April 1858. The Rani escaped the siege on horseback and joined other rebel leaders at Kalpi, where Rose defeated them on 22 May. The rebels fled to Gwalior Fort, where they made their last stand; the Rani died there in battle.

After the rebellion, the Rani's name and actions became closely associated with nationalist movements in India. Her legend, influenced by Hindu mythology, became hugely influential because of its universal applicability. She was regarded as a great heroine by the Indian independence movement and remains revered in modern India, although Dalit communities tend to view her negatively. Rani Lakshmibai has been extensively depicted in artwork, cinema, and literature, most notably in the 1930 poem "Jhansi Ki Rani" and Vrindavan Lal Verma's 1946 novel Jhansi ki Rani Lakshmi Bai.

Little is known for certain about the Rani's life before 1857, because there was then no need to record details about an as-yet ordinary young girl. As a result, every biography of her life relies on a mixture of factual evidence and legendary tales, especially when concerning her childhood and adolescence.

Early life and marriage- Moropant Tambe was a Karhada Brahmin who served the Maratha noble Chimaji, whose brother Baji Rao II had been deposed as Maratha peshwa in 1817. In the city of Varanasi, he and his wife Bhagirathi had a daughter, whom they named Manikarnika, an epithet of the River Ganges; in childhood she was known by the diminutive Manu. Her birth year is disputed: British sources tended towards the year 1827, whereas Indian sources generally preferred the year 1835.

Both Manikarnika's mother Bhagirathi and her father's employer Chimaji died when she was a young child. Moropant moved to the court of Baji Rao at Bithur, who gave him a job and who became fond of Manikarnika. According to uncorroborated popular legend, her childhood playmates in Bithur included Nana Sahib and Tatya Tope, who would similarly become prominent in 1857. These stories say that Manikarnika, deprived of a feminine influence by her mother's death, was allowed to play and learn with her male playmates: she was literate, skilled in horseriding, and—extremely unusually for a girl, if true—was given lessons in fencing, swordplay, and even firearms.

Jijabai Shahaji Bhosale

 Rajmata Jijabai Shahaji Bhosale ( 12 January 1598 – 17 June 1674 ) was the mother of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, the founder of the Maratha Empire . She is also known as Rajmata, Rashtramata, Jijabai or Jijau. Jijabai's father was Lakhuji Jadhav of Sindkhed and her mother's name was Mhalsabai. Jadhav was a descendant of the Yadav family of Devgiri . In December 1605 , Jijabai married Shahajiraj at Daulatabad .

Jijabai was known for her virtue, bravery and foresight. She was also a skilled horse rider. She could wield the sword with great skill.

The Government of India released a postage stamp in Jijabai's honour on 7 July 1999. Jijabai has been the inspiration for many films and books.

History- Jijabai was born on 12 January 1598 to Mhalsabai and Lakhuji Jadhav of Deulgaon near Sindkhed in present-day Buldhana district of Maharashtra. Lakhujiraje Jadhav was a Maratha nobleman. Jijabai was married at a young age to Shahaji Bhosale , son of Maloji Bhosale of Verul village . He taught Shivaji Swarajya and raised him as a great warrior.

Jijabai died on 17 June 1674. C.V. Vaidya, in his book Medieval India, states that the Yadavs are "definitely pure Maratha Kshatriyas". [Jijabai (mother of Shivaji Maharaj, who founded the Maratha Empire) was the daughter of Maharaja Lakhojiraje Jadhav of the Maratha/Deogiri Jadhav/Yadav Empire,

Lakhujirao Jadhav was one of the powerful and influential men in the Nizamshahi court. One day, all the chieftains, jagirdars, mansabdars and patrimonial lords were leaving for their respective homes after completing their royal duties. A huge crowd formed in front of the main gate. In this crowd, the elephant of a chieftain named Khandgal became uncontrollable and started trampling the people under his feet.

At that time, Dattaji, the son of Lakhujirao Jadhav, along with his army, started attacking the elephant with arrows, spears and swords. To stop all this, both the sons of Vithoji Raje Bhosale, Sambhaji and Kheloji, attacked Dattaji. And a war broke out between Bhosale and Jadhav. And Sambhaji killed Dattaji. When Lakhujirao Jadhav, who had reached the place, came to know about this news and attacked the Bhosale to take revenge.

And attacked Sambhaji. Shahajiraje Bhosale also joined the battle because he had attacked his cousin, but he could not withstand the wrath of Lakhujirao Jadhav. Shahaji Maharaj was seriously injured by Lakhujirao's sword blow. And he finally killed Sambhaji.

After this incident, Jijabai remained loyal to her husband and severed ties with her husband. Jijabai's quality of facing the situation with courage and determination, without allowing any lapse in her duty, putting aside relationships and emotions, was fully embodied in Shivaji Raja .

Father's Day

Father's Day is a day set aside for honoring one's father, as well as fatherhood, paternal bonds, and the influence of fathers in society. "Father's Day" complements similar celebrations honoring family members, such as Mother's Day and, in some countries, Siblings Day, and Grandparents' Day. The day is held on various dates across the world, and different regions maintain their own traditions of honoring fatherhood.

In Catholic countries of Europe, it has been celebrated on 19 March as Saint Joseph's Day since the Middle Ages. In the United States, Father's Day was founded in the state of Washington by Sonora Smart Dodd in 1910. Father's Day is a recognized public holiday in Lithuania and some parts of Spain and was regarded as such in Italy until 1977. It is a national holiday in Estonia, Samoa, and equivalently in South Korea, where it is celebrated as Parents' Day.

For centuries, the Eastern Orthodox Church has appointed the second Sunday before Nativity as the Sunday of the Forefathers to commemorate the ancestors of Christ according to the flesh, starting with Adam and emphasizing the patriarch Abraham, to whom God said,

A customary day for the celebration of fatherhood in Catholic Europe is known to date back to at least 1508. It is usually celebrated on 19 March, as the feast day of Saint Joseph, who is referred to as the fatherly Nutritor Domini in Catholicism and "the putative father of Jesus" in southern European tradition. This celebration was brought to the Americas by the Spanish and Portuguese. The Catholic Church actively supported the custom of a celebration of fatherhood on St. Joseph's Day from either the last years of the 14th century or from the early 15th century, apparently on the initiative of the Franciscans.

In the Coptic Orthodox Church, the celebration of fatherhood is also observed on St Joseph's Day, but the Copts observe this on 20 July. The Coptic celebration may date back to the fifth century.

In the United States, whether to celebrate this day nationwide or not is a matter for debate. In 1908, Grace Golden Clayton proposed the day to honor those men who had died in a mining accident in the US. Though it was not accepted then, in 1909 Sonora Smart Dodd, who along with her five brothers was raised by her father alone, after attending Mother's Day in a church, convinced the Spokane Ministerial Association to celebrate Father's Day nationwide.

In addition to Father's Day, International Men's Day is celebrated in many countries on 19 November in honor of both men and boys.

Animal

 Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms in the biological kingdom Animalia. With few exceptions, animals consume organic material, breathe oxygen, have myocytes and are able to move, can reproduce sexually, and grow from a hollow sphere of cells, the blastula, during embryonic development. Animals form a clade, meaning that they arose from a single common ancestor. Over 1.5 million living animal species have been described, of which around 1.05 million are insects, over 85,000 are molluscs, and around 65,000 are vertebrates. It has been estimated there are as many as 7.77 million animal species on Earth. Animal body lengths range from 8.5 μm. They have complex ecologies and interactions with each other and their environments, forming intricate food webs. The scientific study of animals is known as zoology, and the study of animal behaviour is known as ethology.

The animal kingdom is divided into five major clades, namely Porifera, Ctenophora, Placozoa, Cnidaria and Bilateria. Most living animal species belong to the clade Bilateria, a highly proliferative clade whose members have a bilaterally symmetric and significantly cephalised body plan, and the vast majority of bilaterians belong to two large clades: the protostomes, which includes organisms such as arthropods, molluscs, flatworms, annelids and nematodes; and the deuterostomes, which include echinoderms, hemichordates and chordates, the latter of which contains the vertebrates. The much smaller basal phylum Xenacoelomorpha have an uncertain position within Bilateria.

Animals first appeared in the fossil record in the late Cryogenian period and diversified in the subsequent Ediacaran period in what is known as the Avalon explosion. Earlier evidence of animals is still controversial; the sponge-like organism Otavia has been dated back to the Tonian period at the start of the Neoproterozoic, but its identity as an animal is heavily contested. Nearly all modern animal phyla first appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, which began around 539 million years ago , and most classes during the Ordovician radiation 485.4 Mya. Common to all living animals, 6,331 groups of genes have been identified that may have arisen from a single common ancestor that lived about 650 Mya during the Cryogenian period.

Historically, Aristotle divided animals into those with blood and those without. Carl Linnaeus created the first hierarchical biological classification for animals in 1758 with his Systema Naturae, which Jean-Baptiste Lamarck expanded into 14 phyla by 1809. In 1874, Ernst Haeckel divided the animal kingdom into the multicellular Metazoa and the Protozoa, single-celled organisms no longer considered animals. In modern times, the biological classification of animals relies on advanced techniques, such as molecular phylogenetics, which are effective at demonstrating the evolutionary relationships between taxa.

Humans make use of many other animal species for food (meat, eggs, and dairy products), for materials (such as leather, fur, and wool), as pets and as working animals for transportation, and services. Dogs, the first domesticated animal, have been used in hunting, in security and in warfare, as have horses, pigeons and birds of prey; while other terrestrial and aquatic animals are hunted for sports, trophies or profits. Non-human animals are also an important cultural element of human evolution, having appeared in cave arts and totems since the earliest times, and are frequently featured in mythology, religion, arts, literature, heraldry, politics, and sports.

Air India Flight 171

Air India Flight 171 was a scheduled international passenger flight operated by Air India from Ahmedabad Airport in India to London Gatwick Airport in the United Kingdom. On 12 June 2025, at 1:38 p.m. IST, the Boeing 787-8 Dreamliner operating the flight crashed, approximately 30 seconds after takeoff, into the hostel block of B. J. Medical College in Meghaninagar neighbourhood of Ahmedabad.

The aircraft was carrying 230 passengers and 12 crew members. At least 269 people died, including 241 people on the flight and at least 28 people on the ground. A single passenger survived. This accident is the first fatal crash and hull loss involving the Boeing 787 Dreamliner.

Background-Aircraft and route- The aircraft involved was an eleven-year-old Boeing 787-8 Dreamliner registered as VT-ANB with serial number 36279. The aircraft was built at Boeing's Everett factory and delivered to the airline on 28 January 2014. It was powered by two General Electric GEnx-1B67 engines.

This is the first fatal crash and the first hull loss involving a Boeing 787 since its introduction in 2011, and Air India's first fatal hull loss since the bombing of Air India Flight 182 in 1985. It is the deadliest single-aircraft crash in the history of aviation in India. It is also India's second-deadliest aviation disaster, and the first widebody aircraft crash in the country in 29 years, after the 1996 Charkhi Dadri mid-air collision, which involved a Saudia Boeing 747 and a Kazakhstan Airlines Ilyushin IL-76.

Air India began running routes from Gatwick in 2013, and, at the time of the crash, had 12 departures a week from the airport, including five to Ahmedabad.

Passengers and crew- The flight was carrying 242 people – 230 passengers, including 11 children and 2 infants, along with 2 pilots and 10 flight attendants – according to the Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) and Air India. The passenger manifest included 169 Indians, 53 British, 7 Portuguese, and a Canadian national. The flight was commanded by Captain Sumeet Sabharwal and First Officer Clive Kundar.

Flight 171 took off from runway 23 of Ahmedabad Airport at 13:38 local time (IST; 08:08 UTC) en route to London Gatwick. According to METAR reports, the weather was stable and the visibility was clear. The ADS-B transponder of the aircraft reported an altitude of 625 feet (191 m) before reception was lost at 08:08:50 UTC at around 230 feet (70 m) before the threshold of runway 05. The flight crew issued a mayday call to air traffic control in Ahmedabad. The crash happened during the aircraft's initial climb phase. A video of the incident showed the aircraft initially gaining altitude before gradually descending and, just out of line-of-sight, crashing in a plume of fire and smoke 30 seconds after takeoff. The aircraft's landing gear was never retracted.

Eyewitnesses from the Meghani Nagar area reported hearing multiple explosions, followed by thick plumes of smoke visible from nearby locations as the aircraft hit a building and slid. The plane crashed into students' hostel buildings of B. J. Medical College located in Civil Hospital campus. The aircraft's partially intact stabilizers and tail cone rested on top of a multi-storey building after the accident. There were several explosions immediately after the crash.

Rescue and relief operation- The Ahmedabad Fire and Emergency Services Department confirmed the deployment of units from various city divisions. The first call to the control room was received on 13:45 IST. Two firefighter teams were sent immediately from Naroda GIDC and the "brigade call" was issued. Along with fire office staff of more than 15 people, total 337 firemen, 60 fire vehicles and 20 water bowsers were deployed. Multiple ambulances including 20 ambulances from the fire department were rushed to the location. All roads leading to the crash site and surrounding areas were closed to facilitate rescue operations. Twenty fire vehicles were sent from Vadodara. The teams from Gandhinagar Fire Department, ONGC, GIFT City and Civil Defence also participated in the operation.

The Central Industrial Security Force (CISF), responsible for security at Ahmedabad Airport, were among the first responders. Two Border Security Force (BSF) teams were deployed. Around 130 personnel of the Indian Army were deployed to assist in clearing debris and treating the injured. A military hospital was put on standby to assist efforts. The Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) deployed around 150 personnel while the three National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) teams comprising 90 people were mobilised for the rescue operations. The Western Railway provided Disaster Management Team, Railway Protection Force staff along with hospital team of six doctors, 20 personnel and seven ambulances.

The fire was put under control within an hour but the rescue operation was continued for another five hours. The Central Workshop of Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) employed 159 vehicles, 15 earthmovers, five excavators, 25 trucks and one roller to clear the debris from the site. The AMC also called in 130 engineers, more than 100 personnel from its health department for the relief operation and ordered the emergency readiness of the municipal hospitals.

Shortly after the crash, all flight operations at the airport were suspended before resuming later in the day with a limited capacity.

Indian Army

                                  

The Indian Army (IA) (ISO: Bhāratīya Sēnā) is the land-based branch and largest component of the Indian Armed Forces, making it the world’s second-largest army and the fourth most powerful military globally. The President of India is the Supreme Commander of the Indian Army, and its professional head is the Chief of the Army Staff (COAS). The Indian Army was established on 1 April 1895 alongside the long established presidency armies of the East India Company, which too were absorbed into it in 1903. Some princely states maintained their own armies which formed the Imperial Service Troops which, along with the Indian Army formed the land component of the Armed Forces of the Crown of India, responsible for the defence of the Indian Empire. The Imperial Service Troops were merged into the Indian Army after independence. The units and regiments of the Indian Army have diverse histories and have participated in several battles and campaigns around the world, earning many battle and theatre honours before and after Independence.

The primary mission of the Indian Army is to ensure national security and national unity, to defend the nation from external aggression and internal threats, and to maintain peace and security within its borders. It conducts humanitarian rescue operations during natural calamities and other disturbances, such as Operation Surya Hope, and can also be requisitioned by the government to cope with internal threats. It is a major component of national power, alongside the Indian Navy and the Indian Air Force. The independent Indian army has been involved in four wars with neighbouring Pakistan and one with China. It has emerged victorious in all wars against Pakistan. Other major operations undertaken by the army include Operation Vijay, Operation Meghdoot, and Operation Cactus. The army has conducted large peacetime exercises such as Operation Brasstacks and Exercise Shoorveer, and it has also been an active participant in numerous United Nations peacekeeping missions. The Indian Army was a major force in the First and Second World Wars, particularly in the Western Front and the Middle Eastern theatre during World War I, and the South-East Asian Theatre and the East African and North African campaigns during World War II.

The Indian Army is operationally and geographically divided into seven commands, with the basic field formation being a division. The army is an all-volunteer force and comprises more than 80% of the country's active defence personnel. It is the largest standing army in the world, with 1,248,000[1] active troops and 960,000 reserve troops. The army has embarked on an infantry modernisation program known as Futuristic Infantry Soldier As a System (F-INSAS), and is also upgrading and acquiring new assets for its armoured, artillery, and aviation branches.

Forest

 A forest is an ecosystem characterized by a dense community of trees. Hundreds of definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, and ecological function. The United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines a forest as, "Land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 meters and a canopy cover of more than 10 percent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ. It does not include land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban use." Using this definition, Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 found that forests covered 4.06 billion hectares, or approximately 31 percent of the world's land area in 2020.

Forests are the largest terrestrial ecosystems of Earth by area, and are found around the globe. 45 percent of forest land is in the tropical latitudes. The next largest share of forests are found in subarctic climates, followed by temperate, and subtropical zones.

Forests account for 75% of the gross primary production of the Earth's biosphere, and contain 80% of the Earth's plant biomass. Net primary production is estimated at 21.9 gigatonnes of biomass per year for tropical forests, 8.1 for temperate forests, and 2.6 for boreal forests.

Forests form distinctly different biomes at different latitudes and elevations, and with different precipitation and evapotranspiration rates. These biomes include boreal forests in subarctic climates, tropical moist forests and tropical dry forests around the Equator, and temperate forests at the middle latitudes. Forests form in areas of the Earth with high rainfall, while drier conditions produce a transition to savanna. However, in areas with intermediate rainfall levels, forest transitions to savanna rapidly when the percentage of land that is covered by trees drops below 40 to 45 percent. Research conducted in the Amazon rainforest shows that trees can alter rainfall rates across a region, releasing water from their leaves in anticipation of seasonal rains to trigger the wet season early. Because of this, seasonal rainfall in the Amazon begins two to three months earlier than the climate would otherwise allow. Deforestation in the Amazon and anthropogenic climate change hold the potential to interfere with this process, causing the forest to pass a threshold where it transitions into savanna.

Deforestation threatens many forest ecosystems. Deforestation occurs when humans remove trees from a forested area by cutting or burning, either to harvest timber or to make way for farming. Most deforestation today occurs in tropical forests. The vast majority of this deforestation is because of the production of four commodities: wood, beef, soy, and palm oil. Over the past 2,000 years, the area of land covered by forest in Europe has been reduced from 80% to 34%. Large areas of forest have also been cleared in China and in the eastern United States, in which only 0.1% of land was left undisturbed. Almost half of Earth's forest area is relatively intact, while 9 percent is found in fragments with little or no connectivity. Tropical rainforests and boreal coniferous forests are the least fragmented, whereas subtropical dry forests and temperate oceanic forests are among the most fragmented. Roughly 80 percent of the world's forest area is found in patches larger than 1 million hectares. The remaining 20 percent is located in more than 34 million patches around the world – the vast majority less than 1,000 hectares in size.

Human society and forests can affect one another positively or negatively. Forests provide ecosystem services to humans and serve as tourist attractions. Forests can also affect people's health. Human activities, including unsustainable use of forest resources, can negatively affect forest ecosystems.

Vata Purnima 2025

 Vat Purnima is a Hindu celebration observed by married women in North India and in the Western Indian states of Maharashtra, Goa, Gujarat. On this Purnima during the three days of the month of Jyeshtha in the Hindu calendar, a married woman marks her love for her husband by tying a ceremonial thread around a banyan tree. The celebration is based on the legend of Savitri and Satyavan as narrated in the epic Mahabharata.

History- Main article: Savitri and Satyavan The legends dates back to a story in the age of Mahabharata. The childless king Asvapati and his consort Malavi wish to have a son. Finally, the God Savitr appears and tells him he will soon have a daughter. The king is overjoyed at the prospect of a child. She is born and named Savitri in honor of the god.

Method of Vat Purnima Vrata in Skanda Purana, which is the 14th of Puranas. She is so beautiful and pure, and intimidates all the men in her village that no man will ask for her hand in marriage. Her father tells her to find a husband on her own. She sets out on a pilgrimage for this purpose and finds Satyavan, the son of a blind king named Dyumatsena who lives in exile as a forest-dweller. Savitri returns to find her father speaking with Sage Narada who tells her she has made a bad choice: although perfect in every way, Satyavan is destined to die one year from that day. Savitri insists on going ahead and marries Satyavan.

Three days before the foreseen death of Satyavan, Savitri takes a vow of fasting and vigil. Her father-in-law tells her she has taken on too harsh a regimen, but she replies that she has taken an oath to perform the regimen and Dyumatsena offers his support. The morning of Satyavan’s predicted death, he is splitting wood and suddenly becomes weak and lays his head in Savitri’s lap and dies. Savitri places his body under the shade of a Vat (Banyan) tree. Yama, the god of Death, comes to claim Satyavan's soul. As Yama takes Satyavan's soul, Savitri follows stating that is her duty as a wife to follow her husband. Hearing this, Yama grants her a few wishes, with the exception of asking for her husband's life.

She first asks for eyesight and restoration of the kingdom for her father-in-law, then a hundred children for her father, and then a hundred children for herself and Satyavan. The last wish creates a dilemma for Yama, as it would indirectly grant the life of Satyavan. However, impressed by Savitri's dedication and purity, he offers her one more chance to choose any boon, but this time omitting "except for the life of Satyavan". Savitri instantly asks for Satyavan to return to life. Yama grants life to Satyavan and blesses Savitri's life with eternal happiness.

Satyavan awakens as though he has been in a deep sleep and returns to his parents along with his wife. Meanwhile, at their home, Dyumatsena regains his eyesight before Savitri and Satyavan return. Since Satyavan still does not know what happened, Savitri relays the story to her parents-in-law, husband, and the gathered ascetics. As they praise her, Dyumatsena’s ministers arrive with news of the death of his usurper. Joyfully, the king and his entourage return to his kingdom.

Festival- During Vat Purnima festival, married women tying threads around a banyan tree.Vat Purnima in English means a full moon related to the banyan tree. It is a Hindu festival celebrated strictly in the Northern and Western Indian states Uttarakhand, Maharashtra, Goa, and Gujarat. The period of the festival is observed over three days, usually the 13th, 14th and 15th days in the month of Jestha (May–June). Women observe a fast and tie threads around a banyan tree and pray for the well-being of their husbands.

Madhuri Dixit Indian actress

Madhuri Dixit Nene (née Dixit, pronounced born 15 May 1967) is an Indian actress and television personality. She has appeared in over 70 Hindi films. Praised by critics for her performances and dance ability, Dixit was credited for singularly paralleling her male contemporaries by leading star vehicles in a male-dominated industry. Her accolades include six Filmfare Awards from a record 17 nominations. In 2008, the Government of India awarded her with Padma Shri, the fourth-highest civilian honour of the country.

Born and raised in Mumbai, Dixit made her acting debut in 1984 with a leading role in the drama Abodh. After a few successive commercially failed films, she rose to prominence with the action drama Tezaab (1988), and established herself with starring roles in the top-grossing romantic dramas Dil (1990), Beta (1992), Hum Aapke Hain Koun..! (1994), and Dil To Pagal Hai (1997). She won four Filmfare Awards for Best Actress for her performances in them. Her other commercially successful films during this period include Ram Lakhan, Tridev (both 1989), Thanedaar, Kishen Kanhaiya (both 1990), Saajan (1991), Khalnayak (1993), and Raja (1995).

Apart from Dixit's mainstream success, she earned appreciation from critics for her performances in Prem Pratigyaa, Parinda (both 1989), Anjaam (1994), Mrityudand (1997), Pukar (2000), and Lajja (2001). She received the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress for playing Chandramukhi in Devdas (2002). Following a hiatus, Dixit made a brief comeback by starring in the musical Aaja Nachle (2007), and acted intermittently over the next decades. During this period, she primarily featured as a talent judge for dance reality shows, such as Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa (2010–2022) and Dance Deewane (since 2018). She continued to gain praise for starring in the black comedy Dedh Ishqiya (2014) and the Netflix drama series The Fame Game (2022), and had her highest-grossing releases in the comedies Total Dhamaal (2019) and Bhool Bhulaiyaa 3 (2024).

Dixit was among the country's highest-paid celebrities throughout the 1990s and early 2000s, and has featured in Forbes India's Celebrity 100 list since its inception in 2012. In addition to acting in films, she has been engaged in philanthropic activities. She has worked with UNICEF since 2014 to advocate the rights of children and prevent child labour, participates in concert tours and stage shows, and is the co-founder of the production company RnM Moving Pictures. Since 1999, she has been married to Shriram Nene, with whom she has two sons.

Child labour

 Child labour is the exploitation of children through any form of work that interferes with their ability to attend regular school, or is mentally, physically, socially and morally harmful. Such exploitation is prohibited by legislation worldwide, although these laws do not consider all work by children as child labour; exceptions include work by child artists, family duties, supervised training, and some forms of work undertaken by Amish children, as well as by Indigenous children in the Americas.

Child labour has existed to varying extents throughout history. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, many children aged 5–14 from poorer families worked in Western nations and their colonies alike. These children mainly worked in agriculture, home-based assembly operations, factories, mining, and services such as news boys—some worked night shifts lasting 12 hours. With the rise of household income, availability of schools and passage of child labour laws, the incidence rates of child labour fell.

As of 2023, in the world's poorest countries, around one in five children are engaged in child labour, the highest number of whom live in sub-saharan Africa, where more than one in four children are so engaged. This represents a decline in child labour over the preceding half decade. In 2017, four African nations witnessed over 50 per cent of children aged 5–14 working. Worldwide agriculture is the largest employer of child labour. The vast majority of child labour is found in rural settings and informal urban economies; children are predominantly employed by their parents, rather than factories. Poverty and lack of schools are considered the primary cause of child labour. UNICEF notes that "boys and girls are equally likely to be involved in child labour", but in different roles, girls being substantially more likely to perform unpaid household labour.

Globally the incidence of child labour decreased from 25% to 10% between 1960 and 2003, according to the World Bank. Nevertheless, the total number of child labourers remains high, with UNICEF and ILO acknowledging an estimated 168 million children aged 5–17 worldwide were involved in child labour in 2013.

Sunita Williams

 Sunita Lyn "Suni" Williams is an American astronaut and a retired U.S. Navy officer. Williams served aboard the International Space Station as a participant in Expedition 14, a flight engineer for Expedition 15 and Expedition 32, and commander of Expedition 33. A member of NASA’s Commercial Crew program, she became the first woman to fly on a flight test of an orbital spacecraft during the 2024 Boeing Crew Flight Test and had her stay extended by technical problems aboard the ISS for more than nine months. She is one of the most experienced spacewalkers in the world: her nine spacewalks are second-most by a woman, and her total spacewalk time of 62 hours and 6 minutes is fourth overall and the most by a woman.

Early life- Williams was born in Euclid, Ohio, but considers Needham, Massachusetts, to be her hometown. Her father, Deepak Pandya, was an Indian-American neuroanatomist from Mehsana district, Gujarat, while her mother, Ursuline Bonnie Pandya was a Slovene American. Her parents resided in Falmouth, Massachusetts. She is the youngest of three children. Her brother, Jay Thomas, is four years older and her sister, Dina Annad, is three years older. Williams' paternal family is from Jhulasan in India whereas her maternal family is of Slovene descent. Williams has taken the Slovenian flag, a samosa and Carniolan sausage to space in celebration of her Indian and Slovenian heritage. Her nicknames are Suni in the United States and Sončka in Slovenia.

Williams graduated from Needham High School in 1983. She received a Bachelor of Science degree in physical science from the United States Naval Academy in 1987, and a Master of Science degree in engineering management from Florida Institute of Technology in 1995.

Military career- Williams was commissioned an ensign in the U.S. Navy in May 1987. After a six-month temporary assignment at the Naval Coastal System Command, she was designated a Basic Diving Officer. She next reported to the Naval Air Training Command, where she was designated a Naval Aviator in July 1989. She received initial H-46 Sea Knight training in Helicopter Combat Support Squadron 3, and was then assigned to Helicopter Combat Support Squadron 8 in Norfolk, Virginia, with which she made overseas deployments to the Mediterranean, Red Sea, and Persian Gulf for Operation Desert Shield and Operation Provide Comfort. In September 1992, she was the officer-in-charge of an H-46 detachment sent to Miami, Florida, for Hurricane Andrew relief operations aboard USS Sylvania. In January 1993, Williams began training at the U.S. Naval Test Pilot School. She graduated in December, and was assigned to the Rotary Wing Aircraft Test Directorate as an H-46 Project Officer and V-22 chase pilot in the T-2. Later, she was assigned as the squadron Safety Officer and flew test flights in the SH-60B/F, UH-1, AH-1W, SH-2, VH-3, H-46, CH-53, and H-57.

In December 1995, she went back to the Naval Test Pilot School as an instructor in the Rotary Wing Department and as the school's Safety Officer. There she flew the UH-60, OH-6, and the OH-58. She was then assigned to USS Saipan as the Aircraft Handler and the Assistant Air Boss. Williams was deployed on Saipan in June 1998 when she was selected by NASA for the astronaut program. She has logged more than 3,000 flight hours in more than 30 aircraft types. Williams retired from the Navy in 2017.

Shivrajyabhishek Sohala 2025

 On June 6, 2025, Maharashtra’s iconic Raigad Fort will witness the 352nd Shivrajyabhishek Sohala, commemorating the coronation of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj in 1674. Organised by a committee led by the Kolhapur royal family, this two-day event includes traditional rituals, cultural performances, and mass participation, celebrating the legacy of the Maratha Empire’s founder and the spirit of Swarajya.

Every year on June 6, thousands gather at Raigad Fort, perched high in the Sahyadri mountain range, to commemorate a landmark event in Indian history, the coronation of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. On this day in 1674, Shivaji Maharaj was formally crowned as the sovereign ruler of the Maratha kingdom, marking the official establishment of an independent state amidst the Mughal empire’s dominance. This moment symbolised not only political independence but also a cultural renaissance grounded in indigenous values, governance, and identity. The Shivrajyabhishek Sohala is more than a remembrance; it is a powerful cultural expression that connects present generations to the ideals of Swarajya - self-rule, justice, social welfare, and respect for diversity. The event stands as a reminder of Shivaji’s vision to govern with fairness and to protect the dignity and freedom of his people.

Organisational Stewardship By The Kolhapur Royal FamilyThe event is organised under the stewardship of a dedicated committee headed by the Kolhapur royal family, who are the direct descendants of Shivaji Maharaj. The family plays a key role in preserving the ceremonial authenticity and historical sanctity of the occasion. Their involvement ensures that all rituals, from the initial prayers to the symbolic coronation ceremony, adhere closely to documented historical practices and cultural norms. This committee collaborates with local authorities and cultural groups to manage the event's logistics, security, and participation, making it a well-organised and deeply respectful occasion. Ceremonial Activities and Cultural Festivities

The Shivrajyabhishek Sohala spans two days, traditionally beginning on June 5 with devotional rituals at the nearby Jagadishwar Temple, which holds historical significance related to Shivaji Maharaj and the Maratha dynasty. The next day, a grand procession ascends the fort’s rugged pathways, carrying the royal seal known as the Rajmudra, the saffron flag, ceremonial swords, and other symbolic items. Participants and spectators dressed in traditional Maratha attire add to the vibrancy, joining in Lezim dance, a traditional folk dance involving rhythmic steps and twirling sticks, accompanied by the thunderous beats of dhol-tasha drums. Poetic powadas narrate tales of Shivaji Maharaj’s bravery, strategic genius, and leadership, preserving oral history through song. At the original coronation site within the fort, a symbolic Rajyabhishek  ceremony is conducted, often led by a descendant from the Kolhapur royal family, who dons regal attire to symbolically continue the legacy. This moment serves as the spiritual and emotional peak of the event, drawing deep reverence from attendees.