Panhala Fort

Panhala fort (also known as Panhalgad and Panhalla (literally "the home of serpents")), is located in Panhala, 20 kilometres northwest of Kolhapur in Maharashtra, India. It is strategically located looking over a pass in the Sahyadri mountain range which was a major trade route from Bijapur in the interior of Maharashtra to the coastal areas. Due to its strategic location, it was the centre of several skirmishes in the Deccan involving the Marathas, the Mughals and the British the grand son's of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj East India Company, the most notable being the Battle of Pavan Khind. Here, the queen regent of Kolhapur, Tarabai Ranisaheb, spent her formative years. Several parts of the fort and the structures within are still intact. It is also called as the 'Fort of Snakes' as it is zigzagged in shape.

History-                                                                                                                                                    Lotus motif on Panhala of Raja Bhoj, who built the fort. Peacock motif on Panhala fort of the Adil Shah Sultanis. Panahala fort was built between 1178 and 1209 CE, one of 15 forts (others including Bavda, Bhudargad, Satara, and Vishalgad) built by the Shilahara ruler Bhoja II. It is said that aphorism Kahaan Raja Bhoj, kahan Gangu Teli is associated with this fort. A copper plate found in Satara shows that Raja Bhoja held court at Panhala from 1191–1192 CE. About 1209–10, Bhoja Raja was defeated by Singhana (1209–1247), the most powerful of the Devgiri Yadavas, and the fort subsequently passed into the hands of the Yadavas. Apparently it was not well looked after and it passed through several local chiefs. In 1376 inscriptions record the settlement of Nabhapur to the south-east of the fort.

It was an outpost of the Bahamanis of Bidar. Mahmud Gawan, an influential prime minister, encamped here during the rainy season of 1469. On the establishment of the Adil Shahi dynasty of Bijapur in 1489, Panhala came under Bijapur and was fortified extensively. They built the strong ramparts and gateways of the fort which, according to tradition, took a hundred years to build. Numerous inscriptions in the fort refer to the reign of Ibrahim Adil Shah, probably Ibrahim I (1534–1557).

Under Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj-                                                                                                        Statue of Baji Prabhu Deshpande at Panhala.Statue of Veer Shiva Kashid at Panhala fort. In 1659, after the death of the Bijapur general Afzal Khan, in the ensuing confusion Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj took Panhala from Bijapur. In May 1660, to win back the fort from Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, Adil Shah II (1656–1672) of Bijapur sent his army under the command of Siddi Johar to lay siege to Panhala. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj fought back and they could not take the fort. The siege continued for 5 months, at the end of which all provisions in the fort were exhausted and Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was on the verge of being captured.

Under these circumstances, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj decided that escape was the only option. He gathered a small number of soldiers along with his trusted commander Baji Prabhu Deshpande and, on 13 July 1660, they escaped in the dead of night to flee to Vishalgad. Baji Prabhu and a barber, Shiva Kashid, who looked like Shivaji, kept the enemy engaged, giving them an impression that Shiva Kashid was actually Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. In the ensuing battle, almost three quarters of the one thousand strong force died, including Baji Prabhu himself. The fort went to Adil Shah. It was not until 1673 that Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj could occupy it permanently.

Sambhaji Maharaj, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj son and successor to the throne Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj met his son after he escaped from the Camp of Diler Khan after executing his father political agenda to bring Aurangzeb's successor over to the Maratha's. He escaped from here along with his wife on 13 December 1678 and attacked Bhupalgad. He returned to Panhala, however, on 4 December 1679 to reconcile with his father just before his father's death on 4 April 1680. At the height of Shivaji's power in 1678, Panhala housed 15,000 horses and 20,000 soldiers. also the main darwaza was chaar darwaza.

Under the Kolhapur kings- Konkan Darwaja - Another entrance to the fort                                        When Shivaji died, Sambhaji was able to convince the garrison at Panhala to join him in overthrowing his stepbrother Rajaram I thus becoming the Chhatrapati (king) of the Maratha Empire. In 1689, when Sambhaji was imprisoned by Aurangzeb's general Mukkarab Khan at Sangameshwar, the Mughals came to possess the fort. However, it was re-captured in 1692 by Kashi Ranganath Sarpotdar under the guidance of Parshuram Pant Pratinidhi a Maratha garrison commander of the fort of Vishalgad. In 1701 Panhala finally surrendered to Aurangzeb, who came for it in person. On 28 April 1692 the Mughal Emperor famously received the English ambassador Sir William Norris at Panhala fort. Norris spent "300 pounds in fruitless negotiation" with Aurangzeb but the details of what was being discussed were not disclosed. Within a few months the fort was retaken by the Maratha forces under Ramchandra Pant Amatya.

In 1693, Aurangzeb attacked it again. This led to another long siege in which Rajaram escaped disguised as a beggar to Gingee Fort, leaving his 14-year-old wife Tarabai Ranisaheb in Panhala. As Aurangzeb pursued Rajaram, Tarabai Ranisaheb would stay at Panhala for almost five years before meeting her husband again. During this formative period of her life, Tarabai Ranisaheb looked after the administration of the fort, resolved disputes, and gained the respect of the people. The time she spent at Panhala provided her with experience in courtly matters and the support of her officers, which would influence later events. Rajaram did send reinforcements from Gingee, and Panhala came into Maratha's hands in October 1693.

In 1700, Rajaram, died leaving behind a 12-year-old son—Shivaji II—by his wife Tarabai. In 1705, Tarabai asserted her autonomy by founding an independent dynasty in the name of her son Shivaji II and ruling it as regent with Panhala as her headquarters. In Tarabai Ranisaheb's war with Shahuji of Satara in 1708, Shahu took Panhala and Tarabai fled to Malvan in Ratnagiri. Shortly after, in 1709, Tarabai again took Panhala, established a separate state (Kolhapur Rajaram by his second wife Rajasbai Ranisaheb succeeded to the throne. He died without issue in 1760. His widow Jijabai Ranisaheb adopted the son of a Sahaja Bhonsle of Canvas. Thus, Jijabai Ranisaheb became the acting regent during the time that her adopted son was a minor. She came to believe that to prevent the fall of Panhala, the Mahakali shrine at the fort had to be ritually offered human blood for the appeasement of Goddess Kali. She would periodically send out her soldiers at night to scour the neighboring villages for victims. This practice would continue until her death in 1772. One of the towers near were these sacrifices occurred is still called the Kali tower. There were reports of Jijabai Ranisaheb bestowing a plot of land to an oilman or Teli in return for the grant of his daughter-in-law to be buried alive under one of the Panhala towers. A shrine to the Teli's daughter-in-law (Gangubai) was subsequently erected and it is still a pilgrimage site for the people of the Teli community.

In 1782, the seat of the Kolhapur government was moved from Panhala to Kolhapur. In 1827, under Shahaji I (1821–1837), Panhala and its neighboring fort Pavangad were given over to the British Raj. In 1844, during the minority of Shivaji IV (1837–1860), Panhala and Pavangad were taken by rebels who seized Colonel Ovans, the Resident of Satara, when he was on tour and imprisoned him in Panhala. A British force under General Delamotte was sent against the rebels and on 1 December 1844 breached the fort wall, took it by storm and dismantled the fortifications. Thereafter, a British garrison was always left to guard the fort. The administration of the fort remained with Kolhapur until 1947.

Major features- Plan of the fort-                                                                                                                    It is one of the largest forts in the Deccan, with a perimeter of 14 km (9 mi) and 110 lookout posts. It is 845 m (2,772 ft) above sea level. This fort is built on the Sahyadris, rising more than 400 m (1,312 ft) above its surrounding plain. Numerous tunnels stretch out from underneath the fort, one of which is almost 1 km long. Some of the older bastions have the lotus motif of Bhoja II. There are several monuments at the fort which are considered notable by the Archaeological Survey of India.

Ganesh Chaturthi 2025

Ganesh Chaturthi (Ganesh Festival or the Birthday of Lord Ganesh), also known as Vinayaka Chaturthi or Vinayaka Chavithi or Vinayagar Chaturthi, is a Hindu festival celebrating the birthday of Hindu deity Ganesh. The festival is marked with the installation of Ganesha's murtis privately in homes and publicly on elaborate pandals. Observances include chanting of Vedic hymns and Hindu texts, such as prayers and vrata. Offerings and prasada from the daily prayers, that are distributed from the pandal to the community, include sweets such as modak as it is believed to be a favourite of Ganesha. The festival ends on the tenth day after start, when the murti is carried in a public procession with music and group chanting, then immersed in a nearby body of water such as a river or sea, called visarjana on the day of Ananta Chaturdashi. In Mumbai alone, around 150,000 murtis are immersed annually. It is a state festival of Indian state Maharashtra.

The festival celebrates Ganesha as the God of New Beginnings, the Remover of Obstacles and the God of Wisdom and Intelligence, and is observed throughout the Indian subcontinent by Hindus, especially in the states such as Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Odisha, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Goa, as well as Sri Lanka. Ganesh Chaturthi is also observed by the Hindu diaspora elsewhere such as in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Singapore, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, other parts of the Caribbean, Fiji, Mauritius, South Africa, the United States, and Europe. In the Gregorian calendar, Ganesh Chaturthi falls between 22 August and 20 September every year.

Although the origin of Ganesh Chaturthi remains unknown, it became increasingly popular after a public celebration was initiated by the prominent Anti-Colonial Freedom Fighter, Lokamanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak, in Maharashtra in the year 1893. It was a means to form a Hindu nationalist identity and rebel against British rule. Reading of texts, feasting, athletic and martial arts competitions are held at public venues.

History-Ganesha                                                                                                                                  Though not alluding to the classical form of Ganapati, the earliest mention of Ganapati is found in the Rigveda. It appears twice in the Rigveda, Both of these shlokas imply a role of Ganapati as "the seer among the seers, abounding beyond measure in food presiding among the elders and being the lord of an invocation", while the shloka in mandala 10 states that without Ganapati "nothing nearby or afar is performed without you", according to Michael. However, it is uncertain that the Vedic term Ganapati which literally means "guardian of the multitudes", referred specifically to later era Ganesh, nor do the Vedic texts mention Ganesh Chaturthi. It appears in post-Vedic texts such as the Grhya Sutras and thereafter ancient Sanskrit texts such as the Vajasaneyi Samhita, the Yajnavalkya Smriti and the Mahabharata mention Ganapati as Ganesvaras and Vinayak. Ganesh appears in the medieval Puranas in the form of "god of success, obstacle remover". The Skanda Purana, Narada Purana and the Brahma Vaivarta Purana, in particular, profusely praise him. Beyond textual interpretations, archaeological and epigraphical evidence suggest Ganesha had become popular and was revered before the 8th century CE and numerous images of him are traceable to the 7th century or earlier.

For example, carvings at Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain temples such as at the Ellora Caves, dated between the 5th and 8th-century show Ganesha reverentially seated with Shakti, another Hindu goddess.

Festival- Ganesh Agman                                                                                                                              Although it is unknown when Ganesh Chaturthi was first observed, the festival has been publicly celebrated in Pune since the era of King Shivaji (1630–1680, founder of the Maratha Empire). The Peshwa in the 18th century were devotees of Ganesha and started as a public Ganesh festival in their capital city of Pune during the month of Bhadrapad. After the start of the British Raj, the Ganesh festival lost state patronage and became a private family celebration in Maharashtra until its revival by Indian freedom fighter and social reformer Lokmanya Tilak. Indian freedom fighter Lokmanya Tilak, championed it as a means to circumvent the colonial British government ban on Hindu gatherings through its anti-public assembly legislation in 1892. Lokmanya Tilak started the festival in Pune and Girgaon, Mumbai.

I followed with the greatest curiosity crowds who carried in procession an infinite number of idols of the God Ganesh. Each little quarter of the town, each family with its adherents, each little street corner I may almost say, organises a procession of its own, and the poorest may be seen carrying on a simple plank their little idol or of paper mâché... A crowd, more or less numerous, accompanies the idol, clapping hands and raises cries of joy, while a little orchestra generally precedes the idol.

According to others such as Kaur, the festival became a public event later, in 1892 when Krishnajipant Khasgiwale, a Pune resident, visited Gwalior then under Scindia rule where he witnessed a public Ganesh Chaturthi celebration for the first time. This inspired him to conceptualize a similar public festival back home in Pune. Khasgiwale shared this idea with his friends in Pune Shrimant Bhausaheb Rangari (a respected royal physician and freedom fighter) and Balasaheb Natu. Enthused by the idea, Rangari took the lead and installed the first sarvajanik Ganesha idol in his wada in the Shalukar Bol area of Pune. In 1893, the Indian freedom fighter Lokmanya Tilak praised the celebration of Sarvajanik Ganesh Utsav in his newspaper, Kesari, and dedicated his efforts to launch the annual domestic festival into a large, well organised public event. Tilak recognised Ganesh's appeal as "the god for everybody", and according to Robert Brown, he chose Ganesha as the god that bridged "the gap between Brahmins and non-Brahmins", thereby building a grassroots unity across them to oppose British colonial rule.

Other scholars state that the British Empire, after 1870 out of fear of seditious assemblies, had passed a series of ordinances that banned public assembly for social and political purposes of more than 20 people in British India, but exempted religious assembly for Friday mosque prayers under pressure from the Indian Muslim community. Tilak believed that this effectively blocked the public assembly of Hindus whose religion did not mandate daily prayers or weekly gatherings, and he leveraged this religious exemption to make Ganesh Chaturthi to circumvent the British colonial law on large public assembly. He was the first to install large public images of Ganesha in pavilions in Bombay Presidency, and other celebratory events at the festival.

According to Richard Cashman, Tilak recruited and passionately committed himself to god Ganesha after the 1893 Hindu-Muslim communal violence in Bombay and the Deccan riots, when he felt that the British India government under Lord Harris had repeatedly taken sides and not treated Hindus fairly because Hindus were not well organised. In Tilak's estimate, Ganesha worship and processions were already popular in rural and urban Hindu populations, across social castes and classes in Baroda, Gwalior, Pune and most of the Maratha region in the 18th century. In 1893, Tilak helped expand Ganesh Chaturthi festival into a mass community event and a hidden means for political activism, intellectual discourse, poetry recitals, plays, concerts, and folk dances.

In Goa, Ganesh Chaturthi predates the Kadamba era. The Goa Inquisition had banned Hindu festivals, and Hindus who did not convert to Christianity were severely restricted. However, Hindu Goans continued to practice their religion despite the restrictions. Many families worship Ganesha in the form of patri, a picture is drawn on paper or small silver idols. In some households Ganesha idols are hidden, a feature unique to Ganesh Chaturthi in Goa due to a ban on clay Ganesha idols and festivals by the Jesuits as part of the Inquisition.

Celebration in India-                                                                                                                                  Man painting a Murti of Ganesh. Artist preparing Ganesha's image for the festival in Margao, Goa. In India, Ganesh Chaturthi is primarily celebrated at home and in public by local community groups in the central and western states of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh ,Rajasthan and Goa and the southern states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala and eastern states of West Bengal and Odisha and in North eastern state of Assam.

On the same day, Chaurchan festival is celebrated in Mithila region of Bihar which is related to Ganesha and Chandra, the Hindu moon god. The date for the festival is usually decided by the presence of Chaturthi Thithi. The festival is held during "Bhadrapada Madyahanaa Purvabaddha". If the Chaturthi Thiti begins at night on the previous day and gets over by morning on next day, then the next day is observed as Vinayaka Chaturthi.

In the consecration ceremony, a priest performs a Prana Pratishtha to invite Ganesh like a guest. This is followed by the 16-step Shodashopachara ritual, during which coconut, jaggery, modaks, durva grass and red hibiscus flowers are offered to the idol. Depending on the region and time zone, the ceremony commences with hymns from the Rigveda, the Ganapati Atharvashirsa, the Upanishads and the Ganesh stotra from the Narada Purana are chanted. In Maharashtra as well as Goa, aarti is performed with friends and family, typically in the morning and evening.

In preparation for the festival, artisans create clay models of Ganesha for sale. The images (Murtis) range in size from 20 mm (3⁄4 in) for homes to over 20 m (70 ft) for large community celebrations.

On the last day of the festival, the tradition of Ganesh visarjan or nimajjanam takes places, when the Ganesha images are immersed in a river, sea or water body. On the last day, the devotees come out in processions carrying the idols of Ganesha, culminating in immersion. It is believed that the god who comes to the earthly realm on Ganesh Chaturthi, returns to his celestial abode after immersion. The celebration of Ganesh Chaturthi also denotes the significance of the cycle of birth, life and death. It is believed that when the idol of the Ganesha is taken out for immersion, it also takes away with it the various obstacles of the house and these obstacles are destroyed along with the immersion. Every year, people wait with great anticipation to celebrate the festival of Ganesh Chaturthi.

Hartalika Teej

 Haritalika is a religious vow prescribed for women and virgins in Hinduism. 'Harita' means 'one who took the district' and 'Lika' means 'companion'. Parvati is called 'Haritalika' because her companion took her to penance to attain Shiva. The story of Haritalika is mentioned in the Hargauri Samvad of the Bhavishya Purana. Shiva Bhutva Shiva Yajet | Haritalika should be worshipped with this sentiment.

Haritalika idol-                                                                                                                                    Parvati, the daughter of the ancient Parvata king, became a virgin, and on the advice of Narada, her father planned to marry her to Vishnu. But Parvati had in mind to marry Shankar, so she sent a message to her father through her friend, saying, "If you tie me to Vishnu's lap, I will sacrifice my life." With the help of her friend, she left home and went to a forest to worship the Shivalinga to please Shiva. Parvati worshipped the Shivalinga and fasted for the whole day. Legend has it that Shiva was pleased with her penance and accepted Parvati's request as his wife.

The meaning behind the fast-                                                                                                                Shiva and Parvati or Uma and Maheshwar are known as the parents of the universe. Since the universe was created through the union of the feminine and masculine principles, we worship these principles. We pray for the manifestation of Adi Shakti within us through the worship of Adi Shakti.

Liturgy-                                                                                                                                                        They worship a Shivalinga made of sand or bring idols of Sakhi and Parvati along with the Shivalinga and worship them. The general form of this worship is Sankalpa, sixteen remedies, offering of Saubhagyaleni, offering of offerings, aarti and reading of stories. The book Vrataraj describes this fast. Women stay awake at night, play games and worship the goddess. The next day, they apply ghee to a cotton leaf and lick it, and then the women break their fast.

Haritalika Puja-                                                                                                                                        Haritalika is observed all over India. In order to get a good husband like Parvati, many Brahmin Kumarikas in South India observe this fast. This fast is observed on the third day of Bhadrapada . On this day, clay idols of Gauri and her companions are worshipped by fasting. Haritalika is not observed in Gujarat or Bengal. In Tamil Nadu, the Gauri festival lasts for three days from the second day of Magh Shuddhu. There, Kumarikas, Abhishekavati women also observe this fast. In Maharashtra, many married women and widows also observe this fast. Women also observe this fast in North India, and this fast is also observed in the Kashi region. In Maharashtra, this fast is also observed in the Sindhudurg coast and Goa states. In the Indian states of Bihar , Uttar Pradesh , Jharkhand , and Rajasthan , this fast is also observed by women.

Hartalika is a combination of the Sanskrit words harit and aalika which means "abduction" and "female friend" respectively. According to the legend of Hartalika Teej, Parvati, incarnated as Shailaputri

On the third day of the bright half of Bhadrapada, Parvati made a shiva lingam out of sand and silt of Ganga and prayed. Shiva was so impressed that he gave his word to marry Parvati. Eventually, Parvati was united with Shiva and was married to him with her father's blessing. Since then, the day is referred to as Hartalika Teej as Parvati's female (aalika) friend had to abduct (harit) her in order for the goddess to achieve her goal of marrying Shiva.

Accordingly, Hartalika Teej is seen as a major festival and is celebrated on the third day of the bright half of the Indian/North Nepali Lunar month of Bhadrapada. The festival women feasting during the evening of Hartalika Teej, praying to Parvati and Shiva, remembering their wedding and staying up all night listening to prayers. The fast commences during the evening of Hartalika Teej and is broken the next day after a full day's observance which involves women not even drinking water. The focus is on praying to Parvati whom Shiva desired should be worshipped under the name Hartalika. The main areas of celebration are Bihar, eastern Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand and Nepal. In Rajasthan, an idol of Parvati is taken out in procession in the streets accompanied by singing, and music. Hartalika Teej has also spread to parts of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh.

In Maharashtra Hartalika teej also known as Hartalika tritiya vrat, which is celebrated in similar manner like northern India. It is observed by married women for the welfare, health, and long life of their husbands and for a happy married life and unmarried girls for being blessed with a good husband. It is Nirjala Vrat, they fast for one and half day. Women do Sola shrungar, apply mehndi, wear new red or green sari, observe fast, make idol of Shiva, Gauri, Sakhi and Ganesha with clay or river sand, read katha. They do bhajan sangeet pooja in night as well and open vrat on the second day. It is very auspicious vrat for women in India to worship goddess Parvati in the form of Gauri along with Shiva parivar.

In eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Jharkhand, married women keep Nirjala Upvas for the whole day of Teej, & deck up with Shringaars like Aalta, Mehndi, e.t.c.. In the evening, the women get decked up in heavy sarees, gold jewellery,their wedding Chunris, & don the traditional orange Sindoor from the tip of their nose. In many homes, it is a tradition to wear their wedding Banarasi Saree, on the eve of Teej. They make & worship small clay idols of Shiva, Gauri, Ganesh & Kartikeya. They offer flowers, garlands, Fruits, sweets & items of 16 Shringaar to Maa parvati. Then they recite & listen to the Hartālikā Teej Katha,& offer reverence to the deities. Very early in the next morning,before sunrise, the women get ready & worship the idols again & finally conclude their fasts. The idols are later immersed in a holy water body. In Bhojpuri region, traditional delicacies such as Thekua, Pidukia, e.t.c. are prepared for offering. Traditional folk songs are sung, & women adorn Sindoor from their wedding Sinhora.

Countries Of Europe

Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east. Europe shares the landmass of Eurasia with Asia, and of Afro-Eurasia with both Africa and Asia. Europe is commonly considered to be separated from Asia by the watershed of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, the Greater Caucasus, the Black Sea, and the Turkish straits.

Europe covers approx. 10,186,000 square kilometres (3,933,000 sq mi), or 2% of Earth's surface (6.8% of Earth's land area), making it the second-smallest continent (using the seven-continent model). Politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states, of which Russia is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a total population of about 745 million in 2021; the third-largest after Asia and Africa. The European climate is affected by warm Atlantic currents, such as the Gulf Stream, which produce a temperate climate, tempering winters and summers, on much of the continent. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable producing more continental climates.

The culture of Europe consists of a range of national and regional cultures, which form the central roots of the wider Western civilisation, and together commonly reference ancient Greece and ancient Rome, particularly through their Christian successors, as crucial and shared roots. Beginning with the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE, Christian consolidation of Europe in the wake of the Migration Period marked the European post-classical Middle Ages. The Italian Renaissance spread across many Western European countries, adapting to local contexts and giving rise to distinct national expressions. The renewed humanist emphasis on art and science was among the several factors that contributed to the broader transition to the modern era. Since the Age of Discovery, led by Spain and Portugal, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs with multiple explorations and conquests around the world. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers colonised at various times the Americas, almost all of Africa and Oceania, and the majority of Asia.

The Age of Enlightenment, the French Revolution, and the Napoleonic Wars shaped the continent culturally, politically, and economically from the end of the 17th century until the first half of the 19th century. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to radical economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe and eventually the wider world. Both world wars began and were fought to a great extent in Europe, contributing to a decline in Western European dominance in world affairs by the mid-20th century as the Soviet Union and the United States took prominence and competed over ideological dominance and international influence in Europe and globally. The resulting Cold War divided Europe along the Iron Curtain, with NATO in the West and the Warsaw Pact in the East. This divide ended with the Revolutions of 1989, the fall of the Berlin Wall, and the dissolution of the Soviet Union, which allowed European integration to advance significantly.

European integration has been advanced institutionally since 1948 with the founding of the Council of Europe, and significantly through the realisation of the European Union (EU), which represents today the majority of Europe. The European Union is a supranational political entity that lies between a confederation and a federation and is based on a system of European treaties. The EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. A majority of its members have adopted a common currency, the euro, and participate in the European single market and a customs union. A large bloc of countries, the Schengen Area, have also abolished internal border and immigration controls. Regular popular elections take place every five years within the EU; they are considered to be the second-largest democratic elections in the world after India's. The EU economy is the second-largest in the world by nominal GDP and third-largest by PPP-adjusted GDP.

Etymology-                                                                                                                                      Reconstruction of an early world map made by Anaximander of the 6th century BCE, dividing the known world into three large landmasses, one of which was named Europe. The place name Evros was first used by the ancient Greeks to refer to their northernmost province, which bears the same name today. The principal river there – Evros (today's Maritsa) – flows through the fertile valleys of Thrace, which itself was also called Europe, before the term meant the continent.

In classical Greek mythology, Europa (Ancient Greek: Εὐρώπη, Eurṓpē) was a Phoenician princess. One view is that her name derives from the Ancient Greek elements εὐρύς (eurús) 'wide, broad', and ὤψ (ōps, gen. ὠπός, ōpós) 'eye, face, countenance', hence their composite Eurṓpē would mean 'wide-gazing' or 'broad of aspect' Broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. An alternative view is that of Robert Beekes, who has argued in favour of a pre-Indo-European origin for the name, explaining that a derivation from eurus would yield a different toponym than Europa. Beekes has located toponyms related to that of Europa in the territory of ancient Greece, and localities such as that of Europos in ancient Macedonia.

There have been attempts to connect Eurṓpē to a Semitic term for west, this being either Akkadian erebu meaning 'to go down, set' or Phoenician 'ereb 'evening, west', which is at the origin of Arabic maghreb and Hebrew ma'arav. Martin Litchfield West stated that "phonologically, the match between Europa's name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor", while Beekes considers a connection to Semitic languages improbable.

Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent. Chinese, for example, uses the word Ōuzhōu, which is an abbreviation of the transliterated name Ōuluóbā zhōu a similar Chinese-derived term Ōshū is also sometimes used in Japanese such as in the Japanese name of the European Union, Ōshū Rengō, despite the katakana Yōroppa being more commonly used. In some Turkic languages, the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa.

Definition-                                                                                                                                                The prevalent definition of Europe as a geographical term has been in use since the mid-19th century. Europe is taken to be bounded by large bodies of water to the north, west and south; Europe's limits to the east and north-east are usually taken to be the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, and the Caspian Sea; to the south-east, the Caucasus Mountains, the Black Sea, and the waterways connecting the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea.

Definitions used for the boundary between Asia and Europe in different periods of history. A medieval T and O map printed by Günther Zainer in 1472, showing the three continents as domains of the sons of Noah – Asia to Sem (Shem), Europe to Iafeth (Japheth) and Africa to Cham (Ham)

Islands are generally grouped with the nearest continental landmass, hence Iceland is considered to be part of Europe, while the nearby island of Greenland is usually assigned to North America, although politically belonging to Denmark. Nevertheless, there are some exceptions based on sociopolitical and cultural differences. Cyprus is closest to Anatolia (or Asia Minor), but is considered part of Europe politically and it is a member state of the EU. Malta was considered an island of North-western Africa for centuries, but now it is considered to be part of Europe as well. "Europe", as used specifically in British English, may also refer to Continental Europe exclusively.

The term "continent" usually implies the physical geography of a large land mass completely or almost completely surrounded by water at its borders. Prior to the adoption of the current convention that includes mountain divides, the border between Europe and Asia had been redefined several times since its first conception in classical antiquity, but always as a series of rivers, seas and straits that were believed to extend an unknown distance east and north from the Mediterranean Sea without the inclusion of any mountain ranges. Cartographer Herman Moll suggested in 1715 Europe was bounded by a series of partly joined waterways directed towards the Turkish straits, and the Irtysh River draining into the upper part of the Ob River and the Arctic Ocean. In contrast, the present eastern boundary of Europe partially adheres to the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, which is somewhat arbitrary and inconsistent compared to any clear-cut definition of the term "continent".

The current division of Eurasia into two continents now reflects East-West cultural, linguistic and ethnic differences which vary on a spectrum rather than with a sharp dividing line. The geographic border between Europe and Asia does not follow any state boundaries and now only follows a few bodies of water. Turkey is generally considered a transcontinental country divided entirely by water, while Russia and Kazakhstan are only partly divided by waterways. France, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain are also transcontinental (or more properly, intercontinental, when oceans or large seas are involved) in that their main land areas are in Europe while pockets of their territories are located on other continents separated from Europe by large bodies of water. Spain, for example, has territories south of the Mediterranean Sea—namely, Ceuta and Melilla—which are parts of Africa and share a border with Morocco. According to the current convention, Georgia and Azerbaijan are transcontinental countries where waterways have been completely replaced by mountains as the divide between continents.

Bahinabai Chaudhari jayanti

                                   

Bahinabai Chaudhari (24 August 1880 – 3 December 1951) was a Khandeshi language language poet from Jalgaon district of Bombay State, India. She became a noted poet posthumously.

Bahinabai (1628–1700 AD) or Bahina or Bahini was a female Varkari saint from Maharashtra, India. She is considered a disciple of the Varkari poet-saint Tukaram. Having been born in a Brahmin family, Bahinabai was married to a widower at a young age and spent most of her childhood wandering around Maharashtra along with her family. She describes, in her autobiography Atmamanivedana, her spiritual experiences with a calf and visions of the Varkari's patron deity Vithoba and Tukaram. She reports being subjected to verbal and physical abuse by her husband, who despised her spiritual inclination but who finally accepted her chosen path of devotion (bhakti). Unlike most female-saints who never married or renounced their married life for God, Bahinabai remained married her entire life.

Bahinabai's abhanga compositions, written in Marathi, focus on her troubled marital life and the regret being born a woman. Bahinabai was always torn between her duties to her husband and her devotion to Vithoba. Her poetry mirrors her compromise between her devotion to her husband and God.

Early life-                                                                                                                                          Bahinabai has written an autobiographical work called Atmamanivedana or Bahinibai Gatha, where she describes not only her current birth but also twelve previous births. The first 78 verses of the total 473 trace her current life.

As per the account, she was born in Deogaon (Rangari) or Devgaon (R) near Ellora or Verul in northern Maharashtra, where she spent her childhood. Her parents, Aaudev Kulkarni and Janaki were brahmins, the Hindu priest class, and considered their first child Bahinabai as a harbinger of good fortune. Bahinabai started reciting the names of God from an early age, while playing with her mates.

Bahinabai was married at the age of three with a thirty-year-old widower called Gangadhar Pathak, who she describes as a scholar and "an excellent jewel of a man", but stayed with parents until she reached puberty as per the custom. When Bahinabai was about nine years old, she with her parents and husband, had to leave Devghaon due to a family dispute. They wandered with pilgrims along the banks of river Godavari and begged for grain, as customarily wandering holy men do. They visited Pandharpur, the city which hosts the chief temple of Vithoba, in this period. By the age of eleven, she with her family finally settled in Kolhapur. She was "subjected to the demands of married life" at this age, but she was not into it.

Later life-                                                                                                                                                Bahinabai reported visions of the Varkari's patron deity Vithoba, pictured. In Kolhapur, Bahinabai was exposed to Hari-Kirtana songs and tales from the scripture Bhagavata Purana. Here, Bahinabai's husband was gifted a cow, who soon gave birth to a calf. Bahinabai reports a spiritual encounter with the calf. The calf, in Varkari literature, symbolises a person who has attained the highest state of yogic concentration in the previous birth, but due to some fault, is forced to take birth as a calf. The calf followed Bahinabai wherever she went. Bahiabai with the calf also attended the Kirtana of the famed swami Jayaram. Jayaram patted heads of the calf and Bahinabai. When Bahinabai's husband heard of the incident, he dragged Bahinabai by her hair, beat and tied her up in the house. Following this, the calf and the cow gave up food and water leading to the former's death. At its burial, Bahinabai fainted and lay unconscious for days. She awoke with her first vision of the Varkari's patron deity Vithoba and later of her contemporary poet-saint Tukaram. Following the incident, she had another vision of the duo that revived her from the sorrow of the calf's death. In these visions, Tukaram fed her nectar and taught her the mantra "Rama-Krishna-Hari". Thereafter, Bahinabai pronounced Tukaram as her guru. In her visions, Tukaram initiated her into the path of bhakti (devotion) and instructed her to recite the name of Vithoba. Some people considered her behaviour as a sign of madness, while others considered it a mark of sainthood.

Bahinabai's husband dissuaded her by saying that she being of a Brahmin, should not listen to the lower caste Shudra Tukaram. However, Bahinabai did not find happiness in the life of a dutiful wife and turns to bhakti, at the same time serving her husband. As her fame spread, her husband is portrayed to have been jealous of the attention Bahinabai received. Her hot-tempered husband is reported to have abused, beaten and confined Bahinabai to the cattle-shed. When all methods fail to deter her, he decided to leave Bahinabai, who was three months pregnant at the time. However, he could not do so as he suffered a burning limbs sensation lasting a month, on the day of departure. Finally, he repented and was convinced of Bahinabai's faith and devotion to God. At the same time, Bahinabai realised her neglect of her husband and decided "serving him was more important than devoting herself to (another) god." 

The family of Bahinabai went to Dehu, the home-town of Tukaram and paid their respects to him. Here, the brahmin Bahinabai's acceptance of the lower caste Sudra Tukaram as her guru, agitated local brahmins, which led to harassment of the family and threatening of ostracism. In Dehu, Bahinabai gave birth to a daughter, who she named Kasibai. But, she was distressed and mediated suicide. Tukaram in her vision, stopped her and blessed her with poetic powers and prophesied that she would have a son who was a companion in her previous birth, thus Bahinabai is believed to have started composition of poetry, the first of which were dedicated to Vithoba. Consequently, she had a son, who she named Vithoba, the exact time of his birth is not provided, but he is mentioned in a later part of her autobiography.

Finally the family moved to Shirur, where Bahinabai practised a vow of silence for a while. In 1649, on Tukaram's death, Bahinabai revisited Dehu and fasted for eighteen days where, according to the traditional account, she was blessed with a vision of Tukaram again. She then visited the saint Ramdas and stayed in his company until his death in 1681. Afterwards she returned to Shirur.

In last sections of her autobiography, Bahinabai says she has "seen her death". She prophesied her death and wrote a letter to Vithoba, her son, who had gone to Shukeshwar to perform last rites of his wife. On her death-bed, Bahinabai told Vithoba (her son) that he had been her son throughout her twelve previous births and also in her current (thirteenth) birth, which she believed was her last. Further, she narrated the tale of her twelve previous births, which are recorded in her autobiography. She died in 1700, at the age of 72.

Literary works-                                                                                                                                          Apart from her autobiography, Bahinabai composed abhangas, which deal with various subjects like praise of god Vithoba, Atman, Sad-guru, sainthood, Brahmanhood, and devotion. Bahinabai's abhanga compositions also focus on her troubled relationship with her husband, the conflict between husband and wife, and to certain extent its resolution. She even portrays her husband's hostile and harmful feelings with empathy. Unlike many of the woman-saints of the period, Bahinabai remained married her entire life, dutifully serving her husband, balancing her roles pativrata (a devoted wife) and virakta (the detached). Bahinabai does not revolt against social traditions and believed denouncement of the world is not the solution to a woman's suffering. Her poetry reflects her compromise between her devotion to her husband and her god Vithoba.

Bahinabai also comments on the duties of a married woman. Some abhangas extol the merits of a pativrata, others advocate pure devotion to God which may lead to the ire of society. Others advocate the compromise. She also speaks of pravrtti (action) and nivrtti (quiescence), personified as wives of manas (the mind). Both of them argue over their own superiority, winning a particular moment in the debate and finally reconciling and together directing the mind to its ultimate goal. In her own life, Bahinabai sought to balance these two: pravrtti – the duties of a virtuous wife and nivrtti – renunciation of the world.

Bahinabai sometimes curses her fate of being born as a woman, which author Tharu interprets as "her scepticism, her rebelliousness and her insistent refusal to abandon her aspiration for the truth". She regrets her female birth as she was kept away from the knowledge of the holy scriptures like Vedas and sacred mantras, by the male-dominated brahmin society. 

KK (singer) HBD

 Krishnakumar Kunnath (23 August 1968 – 31 May 2022), popularly known as KK, was an Indian playback singer. KK is regarded as one of the greatest and most prolific playback singers in India. Noted for his versatility in a variety of music genres, he recorded songs primarily in Hindi, Tamil, Telugu and Kannada language. KK was a recipient of several accolades including two Screen Awards, along with six Filmfare Awards nominations.

KK began his career by singing advertising jingles and made his film debut in 1996 with a song in Maachis. KK released his debut album, Pal in 1999. The songs "Pal" and "Yaaron" from the album became popular, and are used in school graduations. The album turned out to be his career breakthrough. The song "Tadap Tadap Ke" from the 1999 film Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam, earned him his first Filmfare Award for Best Male Playback Singer nomination.

KK went onto establish himself as one of the leading singers of the 2000s with successful songs in various languages. His most popular songs include — "Koi Kahe Kehta Rahe" from Dil Chahta Hai (2001), "O Humdum Suniyo Re" from Saathiya (2002), "Dola Re Dola" from Devdas (2002), "Uyirin Uyirae" from Kaaka Kaaka (2003), "Apadi Podu" from Ghilli (2004), "Dus Bahane" from Dus (2005), "Kya Mujhe Pyaar Hai" from Woh Lamhe... (2006), "Tu Hi Meri Shab Hai" from Gangster: A Love Story (2006), "Aankhon Mein Teri" from Om Shanti Om (2007), "Khuda Jane" from Bachna Ae Haseeno (2008), "Zara Sa" from Jannat (2008), "Sajde" from Khatta Meetha (2010), "Piya Aaye Na" from Aashiqui 2 (2013), "Mat Aazma Re" from Murder 3 (2013), "India Wale" from Happy New Year (2014), and "Tu Jo Mila" from Bajrangi Bhaijaan (2015).

KK was popularly known as "The Mesmerizer", for his romantic songs. KK received the Screen Awards for Best Singer – Male (non-film music) for his song "Pal" and Best Playback Singer – Male for "Khuda Jaane", from the film Bachna Ae Haseeno.

Early life and work-                                                                                                                               Born in Delhi on 23 August 1968 to Malayali parents, his mother, Kanakavalli of the Kunnath house and father, C. S. Menon. Krishnakumar grew up in New Delhi. He got his family name, Kunnath, through matrilineal succession. He sang 3,500 jingles before breaking into Bollywood. Kunnath attended Delhi's Mount St Mary's School, and Kirori Mal College, Delhi University. He appeared in the song "Josh of India", released to support the Indian national team during the 1999 Cricket World Cup. After receiving a degree in commerce from Kirori Mal College, Kunnath spent six months as a marketing executive before pursuing his love of music. He struggled to establish himself in the competitive recording industry, singing at hotels to make ends meet. Kunnath moved to Mumbai in 1994.

Career- Playback singing-                                                                                                                           In 1994, KK gave a demo tape to Louis Banks, Ranjit Barot and Lesle Lewis. He was called by UTV, and sang a jingle for a Santogen Suiting ad. In a four-year period, KK sang over 3,500 jingles in 11 languages. He considered Lesle Lewis his mentor for giving him his first jingle to sing in Mumbai. KK then became a playback singer, beginning with A. R. Rahman's "Kalluri Saaley" and "Hello Dr." from Kadir's Kadhal Desam and "Strawberry Kannae" from AVM Productions's 1997 musical film, Minsara Kanavu.

Hindi-                                                                                                                                                            KK made his Bollywood debut with the song "Tadap Tadap Ke Is Dil Se" in Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam (1999). Before this song, however, he had sung parts of "Chhod Aaye Hum" in Gulzar's Maachis (1996). KK considered "Tadap Tadap Ke Is Dil Se" the turning point of his career. Other popular songs included "Dola Re Dola" in Devdas (2002), "Kya Mujhe Pyaar Hai" in Woh Lamhe... (2006), "Aankhon Mein Teri" in Om Shanti Om (2007), "Khuda Jane" in Bachna Ae Haseeno (2008), "Piya Aaye Na" in Aashiqui 2 (2013), "Mat Aazma Re" in Murder 3 (2013), "India Wale" in Happy New Year (2014) and "Tu Jo Mila" from Bajrangi Bhaijaan (2015).

KK received six Filmfare Awards nominations for his songs: "Tadap Tadap", "Bardaasht Nahi Kar Sakta", "Dus Bahane", "Ajab Si", "Zara Sa" and "Khuda Jane". He received the 2009 Screen Award for Best Playback Singer – Male for "Khuda Jaane", from the film Bachna Ae Haseeno. In 2022, KK worked with filmmaker Srijit Mukherji and lyricist Gulzar on a song for Sherdil: The Pilibhit Saga. The song, "Dhoop Paani Bahne De", was the first song released since his death.

Tamil-                                                                                                                                                         KK sang popular songs in several languages, including Tamil. According to Outlook, his songs defined Tamil film music during the 2000s and became part of Tamil culture. In 2004, KK's Tamil song "Appadi Podu" became popular across India and was played at clubs and weddings. He worked with A. R. Rahman on "Strawberry Kanne", a popular song, in 1997. He had a decade of hit songs during the 2000s. KK sang "Love Pannu" for Harris Jayaraj in 2001, followed by "Kadhal Oru Thani Katchi" and "Gundu Gundu Ponne". In 2003, he had two hits composed by Harris Jayaraj: "Uyirin Uyire" and "Kalyanam Dhaan Kattitkittu". "Uyirin Uyire" was popular in cities, and "Kalyanam Dhaan Kattitkittu" became popular across Tamil Nadu.

KK sang "Kadhal Valarthen", composed by Yuvan Shankar Raja. He worked with Harris Jayaraj and Yuvan Shankar Raja to produce two hit songs: "Kadhalikkum Aasai" and "Ninaithu Ninaithu". "Andankaaka Kondaikaari", composed by Harris Jayaraj, was another successful song. KK sang "Annanoda Paatu" in the film Chandramukhi. Other Tamil hit songs by were "Pani Thuli", "Olikuchi Udambukari", and "Lelakku Lelakku Lela". Despite his birth to a Malayali family in Thrissur, KK sang only one Malayalam song in his 25-year career: "Rahasyamay" in Puthiya Mukham (2009).

Albums- KK at a concert in 2009                                                                                                               In 1999, Sony Music had been launched in India and wanted to introduce a new artist. KK was selected, and released his debut solo album: Pal, with music by Lesle Lewis of the duo Colonial Cousins. Pal was a pop rock album. and the songs "Aap Ki Dua", "Yaaron" and the title track, "Pal" were popular with audiences and on the music charts; "Pal" and "Yaaron" are frequently played at school farewells. KK received the 1999 Screen Award for Best Singer – Male (non-film music) for the album.

He released his next album, Humsafar, on 22 January 2008. Humsafar featured "Aasman Ke", "Dekho Na", "Yeh Kahan Mil Gaye Hum", "Rain Bhai Kaari (Maajhi)", and the English-language ballad "Cineraria". The lyrics of its title track are a mixture of English and Hindi, and eight songs on the album were composed by KK.

Television-                                                                                                                                                 He sang many songs for television serials, including Just Mohabbat, Shaka Laka Boom Boom, Kuch Jhuki Si Palkein, Hip Hip Hurray, Kkavyanjali and Just Dance. KK was a jury member on the talent-hunt show, Fame Gurukul. He sang "Tanha Chala" on the Pakistani TV show The Ghost, which aired on Hum TV in 2008. The song was composed by Farrukh Abid and Shoaib Farrukh, with lyrics by Momina Duraid. KK appeared on the MTV India musical programme Coke Studio, singing the qawwali "Chadta Suraj" with the Sabri Brothers and a reprise of "Tu Aashiqui Hai" from Jhankaar Beats. He appeared on Surili Baat, on the Aaj Tak channel. KK performed on Sony Mix and MTV Unplugged, which aired on MTV on 11 January 2014. He presented his Salaam Dubai 2014 concert in Dubai in April 2014, and performed in concert in Goa, Dubai, Chennai and Hong Kong.

On 29 August 2015, KK appeared in season two of the television singing-reality show Indian Idol Junior as a judge and guest jury member. On 13 September of that year, he appeared on the Sony Mix show Baaton Baaton Mein. In a 2019 Hindustan Times interview, KK said that he was active in the music industry with live performances and playback singing. Live performances made him happy; he did not want to abandon his "commitment to the audience", and wanted to release a new album after the 2008 success of his second album.

Personal life-                                                                                                                                              KK married Jyothy Krishna in 1991. His son, Nakul Krishna Kunnath, sang "Masti" with him. KK also has a daughter, named Taamara Krishna Kunnath.

Artistry- Vocals and musical style                                                                                                                KK had no formal musical training. According to film director Mahesh Bhatt, "KK had an emotional bandwidth which echoed all the seasons of the heart. He could be frivolous, romantic and anguished. He could go into the depths, talk about the wonder and magic of life."

KK believed that it was unimportant for a singer's face to be seen, but "a singer must be heard". In a 2019 interview, he said that he felt comfortable with a microphone but awkward in front of a camera. KK valued and "fiercely" protected his privacy. He did not want his singing to be associated with a particular actor and preferred singing for a number of actors. He is widely regarded as a highly versatile singer. Elaborating on his singing style, Ilina Acharya of Film Companion noted: "KK's smooth, honey-textured voice flowed like water. It could project any tone and tenor. He could mould his pitch to reach and resonate with the ups and downs of the human experience."

Inspiration-                                                                                                                                                    KK has often termed legendary singer Kishore Kumar as his inspiration. On not taking any formal training, KK stated his idol as one of the reason and added, "From the beginning, I was able to learn a song by just hearing it, it is something that I’ve been blessed with. I later learned that Kishoreda had never learned music, so I had even more reasons to not go to a music class." Sneha Bengani from CNBC TV18 compared him to his inspiration and noted, "Much like Kumar’s, KK’s songs are standalone entities too, larger than the films or the albums they belong to."

Impact and recognition- KK at an event in 2012                                                                                          KK is described in the media as one of the most popular and versatile singers of Indian cinema. S. R. Praveen termed him a "rare Malayali singer" who made it big in Bollywood. India TV placed him in its "Top 10 Bollywood Singers" of all time list. KK was placed 30th in Google's "Top 100 Most Searched Asians" list of 2022. A total of nine songs of KK were placed in BBC's "Top 40 Bollywood Soundtracks of all time" list.

KK's work has received praises from several artists. Arijit Singh considered KK as his favourite singer and mentor. In 2023, Singh gave a tribute to him and sang his song "Dil Ibadat" in one of his concert. Calling him a "path-breaking singer", Abhijeet Bhattacharya added, "KK was a trendsetting singer, which still continues. He was the last playback singer we had… those who came after him, I don’t count them as playback singers. His songs were written for the screen and heroes." Anupam Roy called KK his idol and added that he was a "livewire performer", who drew his energy from the crowd. Shaan praised KK's work ethics and added, "We had some of our best times while recording songs together or while performing on stage. KK was very disciplined. He’d be on time and his preparation – for a song recording or stage show – was always on point. We did some great duets together." Sunidhi Chauhan called him her favourite and added, "I used to go insane with KK on stage and I will never forget the few shows we have done together. I am personally a fan of KK, so much so that I would love to be a little bit of KK."

Illness and death-                                                                                                                                       On 31 May 2022, KK performed a concert at a college festival at Nazrul Mancha in South Kolkata. After the concert, he returned to his hotel in Esplanade. He complained of feeling unwell on the way back to his hotel, where he experienced cardiac arrest. He collapsed, and efforts to revive him at the hotel were unsuccessful. KK was rushed to Calcutta Medical Research Institute (CMRI) at about 10:30 pm, where he was declared dead. He was 53 years old.

On 1 June 2022, Kolkata Police registered a case of unnatural death to investigate KK's death. His autopsy was videographed; the report cited myocardial infarction (heart attack) as the probable cause of death, ruling out foul play. According to the doctor who conducted the autopsy, KK could have survived if he had received cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) immediately after losing consciousness. He had complained to his wife about pain in his shoulder and arm for several days before his death, thinking it was caused by digestive problems. According to the autopsy report, KK's heart had an 80-percent blockage. Three public interest litigations (PILs) related to the singer's death were registered in the Calcutta High Court.

Bailpola

 Pola or Bailpola is a festival of bulls celebrated on the new moon day of Shravan or Bhadrapada new moon day, depending on the region. It is a Marathi festival expressing gratitude towards bulls and is celebrated on a grand scale especially in Vidarbha , and also in the Madhya Pradesh and Telangana border areas bordering Vidarbha. Those who do not have agriculture worship a clay bull. Along with the festivals of Nagpanchami , Narali Pournima , Rakshabandhan, Gokulashtami , 'Pola' is a Sarja-Raja festival celebrated on Pithori Amavasya in the middle of Shravan throughout Maharashtra.

Appearance-                                                                                                                                                  This day is a day of rest for the bulls. The bulls are invited (invited) on the day before the bulls are taken to the river/river and bathed. They are then given pasture and brought home. On this day, the shoulders of the bull (the part where the neck is attached to the body) are roasted with turmeric and ghee. This is called 'Khand Shekne' or 'Khand Shekne'. They are given an embroidered shawl, ochre dots all over their bodies, a beggar on their horns, a bashing on their head, a garland of kavadya and ghungar around their necks , a new vesan , a new kasra (a rope for covering the bells), and silver or kardoda toda (a rope made of copper) on their feet. They are offered sweet puranpoli and delicious food to eat. The 'Bailkari', who takes care of the bull, is given new clothes.

Tanha Bail Pola is celebrated in Vidarbha. In many parts of Vidarbha, Bail Pola is celebrated for two consecutive days. On the first day, there is a big Bail Pola and on the second day, there is a small Bail Pola. On the day of the big Bail Pola, farmers decorate and worship the bull, while on the day of the small Bail Pola, the farmers' children decorate the clay bulls they have brought for them and take them from house to house. In return, people please these Bakgopals by giving them money or gifts. There is enthusiasm among the farmers for this festival. Farmers buy decorations for their bulls according to their means to make them stand out. They decorate the bulls and participate in the procession of the Pola. A large mango leaf toran is built on the field (akhara) near the village border. On this festival day, a mango leaf toran is built for every house in the villages of Maharashtra. All the bullock pairs in the village are brought together near it, playing the Vajantri, Sanai, Dhol, and Tashe. At this time, there is a custom of singing ' Jadatya ' (songs of the hive). After that, the 'Manavaik' (the one who is respected in the village - the village Patil/rich landlord) breaks the pyre and the hive 'bursts'. Then the bulls are taken to the temple of Maruti and then taken home and waved. The bull driver is given 'Bojara' (money). This festival is considered to be of special importance among the farmers and is celebrated with great enthusiasm.

Karnataka-                                                                                                                                                   In some areas on the Maharashtra - Karnataka border, for example in Kolhapur district, Karnataka Bendur is celebrated. This festival is celebrated on the second day of Vat Poornima . On this day, bulls are given a rest from agricultural work. Bulls are decorated and paraded like a beehive. In the evening, there is a tax-cutting program.

Pola is a thanksgiving festival celebrated by farmers in Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh, to acknowledge the importance of bulls and oxen, who are a crucial part of agriculture and farming activities. It falls on the day of the Pithori Amavasya  in the month of Shraavana. During Pola, farmers don't work their bulls in the farmland and the day is a school holiday in the rural parts of Maharashtra.

The festival is found among Marathas in central and eastern Maharashtra. A similar festival is observed by Farmers in other parts of India, and is called Mattu Pongal in south and Godhan in north and west India. In Telangana, a similar festival is celebrated on full moon day and is called Eruvaka Purnima

Celebrations- Children with Figures of animals made for Pola Festival, ca. 1916. In preparation for the festival, bulls are washed and massaged with oils. They are decorated with shawls, bells, and flowers, their horns are coloured, and they get new reins and ropes. The decorated bulls and oxen are walked in procession to the village field accompanied by music and dancing. The first bullock to go out is an old bullock with a wooden frame tied on its horns. This bullock is made to break a toran, a rope of mango leaves stretched between two posts, and is followed by all the other cattle in the village.

Homes in the village are decorated with rangolis and toran on top of doors. Puja thalis with kumkum, water, and sweets are prepared, and when the cattle is returned from the procession they are formally greeted by family members, with an earthen lamp with ghee for puja and aarti. On the following day, children decorate wooden bulls with beads and flowers. Ornaments for decorating cattle during pola.

On this day in Chhattisgarh, Lodhi Rajputs bring home-made sweets and dishes like thethri, khurmi, chakli to the homes of their sisters and daughters.

Navneet Kaur Rana

 Navneet Kaur Rana or Navneet Ravi Rana (born 6 April 1985) is a former Indian actress who has worked predominantly in Telugu films . She is the Member of Parliament for the 2019 Lok Sabha elections from Amravati as an independent candidate with the political support of the then partner parties of the Indian National Congress and the Nationalist Congress Party.

Personal life-                                                                                                                                              Navneet Kaur was born and raised in Mumbai . Her parents are originally from Punjab . Her father was an officer in the army. Karthika completed her education up to 10th standard at High School. After 12th standard, she started modeling. In 2011 , Ravi Rana and Navneet Kaur got married in a mass wedding ceremony along with 3,500 other couples. This mass wedding ceremony in Amravati was organized by Baba Ramdev 's organization. The then Chief Minister Prithviraj Chavan , Minister Narayan Rane , actor Vivek Oberoi and Sahara's head Subroto Roy were also present at the ceremony. The Rana couple started gaining fame from then on and remained in the news.

Film career-                                                                                                                                            Navneet Kaur made her film debut with the Kannada film Darshan. She then made her Telugu debut with Seenu Vasanthi Lakshmi (2004) . Chetna (2005), Jagapati (2005), Good Boy (2005), and Bhooma (2008) are some of her later releases. Additional work includes Kalachakram, Terror, Flash News, and Jabilamma, which was a Telugu remake of the Hindi film Chameli . She was a contestant on the reality show Humma Humma on Gemini TV. She acted in the Malayalam film Love in Singapore, directed by Rafi McCartin. In 2010, she acted in the Punjabi film Lad Gaya Pecha opposite Gurpreet Ghuggi.

Political career-                                                                                                                                        Navneet Rana retired from the film industry after marrying Ravi Rana in 2011. At that time, Ravi Rana was an MLA from Badnera assembly constituency in Amravati . Navneet Rana first contested the Lok Sabha elections from Amravati in 2014 on a Nationalist Congress Party ticket. However, in this election, Navneet Rana had to accept defeat from Shiv Sena candidate Anandrao Adsul , who was a four-time MP from the Amravati Lok Sabha constituency. She stated that the reason for her defeat was that she was indirectly competing with Narendra Modi , who had rallied for the then winning candidate Anandrao Adsul.

In 2019, there was a Shiv Sena - BJP alliance for the Lok Sabha elections and Anandrao Adsul was again the alliance candidate. This time Navneet Rana was elected as an independent by a large margin. Congress - NCP supported Rana in this election. She was the only artist from Maharashtra to be elected to the Lok Sabha in 2019. Her victory was considered a major victory for an independent candidate in the neglected Shiv Sena stronghold of Vidarbha . When she was elected, she had the support of Congress-NCP, but after her election, her politics remained BJP-oriented.

At various levels, she is seen arguing with Shiv Sena and party members from time to time. Navneet Rana, who became an MP, started her conflict with Shiv Sena and Adsulas in 2014. In 2014, Rana accused Adsulas of molestation during the elections, which Adsulas denied. Navneet Rana is always in the news for some reason on the political stage.

Dispute-                                                                                                                                                      For the 2019 Lok Sabha elections, the Amravati Lok Sabha constituency was reserved for Scheduled Castes and Navneet Rana contested the election by showing a cobbler caste certificate. After her defeat in 2019, Adsul alleged that Navneet Rana's caste certificate was fake and went to court. The High Court also declared Rana's certificate invalid and imposed a fine of two lakh rupees on her. Rana's MP status was in jeopardy. But she went to the Supreme Court and, giving temporary relief , the Supreme Court stayed the High Court's decision, but Rana's MP status is hanging in the balance until the final verdict is announced.

In April 2022, she had announced to recite Hanuman Chalisa in front of Matoshree at the residence of Maharashtra Chief Minister Uddhav Thackeray . However, she withdrew this decision due to some reason. Kaur and her husband Ravi were still arrested by the Mumbai Police; which included sections of sedition, inciting riots, and obstructing government work. Later, they were remanded in 14-day judicial custody by the local magistrate. After an appeal, the Mumbai court also granted them conditional bail. 

Rajiv Gandhi jayanti

 Rajiv Gandhi (20 August 1944 – 21 May 1991) was an Indian statesman and pilot who served as the prime minister of India from 1984 to 1989. He took office after the assassination of his mother, then–prime minister Indira Gandhi, to become at the age of 40 the youngest Indian prime minister. He served until his defeat at the 1989 election, and then became Leader of the Opposition, Lok Sabha, resigning in December 1990, six months before his own assassination.

Gandhi was not related to Mahatma Gandhi. Instead, he was from the politically powerful Nehru–Gandhi family, which had been associated with the Indian National Congress party. For much of his childhood, his maternal grandfather Jawaharlal Nehru was prime minister. Gandhi attended The Doon School, an elite boarding institution, and then the University of Cambridge in the United Kingdom. He returned to India in 1966 and became a professional pilot for the state-owned Indian Airlines. In 1968, he married Sonia Maino; the couple settled in Delhi for a domestic life with their children Rahul and Priyanka. For much of the 1970s, his mother was prime minister and his younger brother Sanjay an MP; despite this, Gandhi remained apolitical.

After Sanjay died in a plane crash in 1980, Gandhi reluctantly entered politics at the behest of his mother. The following year he won his brother's Parliamentary seat of Amethi and became a member of the Lok Sabha, the lower house of India's Parliament. As part of his political grooming, Rajiv was made general secretary of the Congress party and given significant responsibility in organising the 1982 Asian Games.

On the morning of 31 October 1984, his mother (the then prime minister) was assassinated by her two Sikh bodyguards Satwant Singh and Beant Singh in the aftermath of Operation Blue Star, an Indian military action to remove Sikh separatist activists from the Golden Temple. Later that day, Gandhi was appointed prime minister. His leadership was tested over the next few days as organised mobs rioted against the Sikh community, resulting in anti-Sikh massacres in Delhi. That December, the Congress party won the largest Lok Sabha majority to date, 414 seats out of 541. Gandhi's period in office was mired in controversies such as Bhopal disaster, Bofors scandal and Mohd. Ahmed Khan v. Shah Bano Begum. In 1988, he reversed the coup in Maldives, antagonising militant Tamil groups such as PLOTE, intervening and then sending peacekeeping troops to Sri Lanka in 1987, leading to open conflict with the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE). His party was defeated in the 1989 election.

Gandhi remained Congress president until the elections in 1991. While campaigning for the elections, he was assassinated by a suicide bomber from the LTTE. In 1991, the Indian government posthumously awarded Gandhi the Bharat Ratna, the country's highest civilian award. At the India Leadership Conclave in 2009, the Revolutionary Leader of Modern India award was conferred posthumously on Gandhi.

Early life and career-                                                                                                                              Gandhi with his mother Indira, maternal grandpa Jawaharlal Nehru and brother Sanjay in 1949. Gandhi with his mother Indira Gandhi and brother Sanjay Gandhi in 1971. Rajiv Gandhi was born in Bombay (Mumbai) on 20 August 1944 to Indira and Feroze Gandhi. In 1951, Rajiv and his younger brother Sanjay were admitted to Shiv Niketan school, where the teachers said Gandhi was shy and introverted, and "greatly enjoyed painting and drawing". He then studied at the St. Columba's School, Delhi. Thereafter, he was admitted to the preparatory Welham Boys' School and then moved to The Doon School, Dehradun in 1954, where Sanjay joined him two years later. At Doon, Gandhi's senior was Mani Shankar Aiyar, who later became a prominent member in his inner circle. Gandhi was also educated at the Ecole d'Humanité, an international boarding school in Switzerland. He left the Doon School in 1961 with a second-class certificate, having performed well in his final subjects apart from a pass mark in chemistry.

During Gandhi's final year at Doon, his mother and Albert D'Rozario, the scientific attaché at the Indian High Commission in London, arranged his application to Cambridge University. D'Rozario, who had been a college classmate of Gandhi's father Feroze, recommended that Gandhi should read engineering, and met with Mark Pryor, the Senior Tutor at Trinity College, Cambridge. Pryor arranged for Gandhi's conditional admission to Trinity, contingent on his passing the Mechanical Sciences Qualifying (MSQ) Examination with acceptable marks. After studying for his A-Levels at the sixth form college of Davies, Laing & Dick in London, Gandhi sat the MSQ Examination in March 1962 but was unsuccessful. He passed on his second attempt in June, and was admitted to Trinity on 4 September 1962, joining the college in October. While at Trinity, he joined the Cambridge University Boat Club.

During Gandhi's time at Cambridge, his mother and D'Rozario remained concerned about his well-being. D'Rozario, who along with his wife Sophy often hosted Gandhi at their Finchley home, took Gandhi to task for his inattention towards his studies. Despite his support, Gandhi failed end-of-year exams and left Trinity in 1965 without a degree, though he kept in touch with his former mentor in his retirement. In 1966 he began a course in mechanical engineering at Imperial College London, but also failed to complete it. Gandhi really was not studious enough, as he went on to admit later.

Gandhi returned to India in 1966, the year his mother became prime minister. He went to Delhi and became a member of the Flying Club, where he trained as a pilot. In 1970, he was employed as a pilot by Indian Airlines; unlike Sanjay, he did not exhibit any interest of joining politics. In 1968, after three years of courtship, he married Edvige Antonia Albina Màino, who changed her name to Sonia Gandhi and made India her home. Their first child, a son, Rahul was born in 1970. In 1972, the couple had a daughter, Priyanka, who married Robert Vadra. Gandhi was a friend of Amitabh Bachchan, and was familiar with Bachchan even before he launched his acting career. Rajiv, Sanjay and Bachchan spent time together when Bachchan was student in Delhi University and a resident of New Delhi. In the 1980s, Bachchan entered politics to support Gandhi.

Entry into politics- On 23 June 1980, Rajiv's younger brother Sanjay Gandhi died unexpectedly in an aeroplane crash. At that time, Rajiv Gandhi was in London as part of his foreign tour. Hearing the news, he returned to Delhi and cremated Sanjay's body. As per Agarwal, in the week following Sanjay's death, Shankaracharya Swami Shri Swaroopanand, a saint from Badrinath, visited the family's house to offer his condolences. He advised Rajiv not to fly aeroplanes and instead "dedicate himself to the service of the nation". Seventy members of the Congress party signed a proposal and went to Indira, urging Rajiv to enter politics. Indira told them it was Rajiv's decision whether to enter politics. When he was questioned about it, he replied, "If my mother gets help from it, then I will enter politics". Rajiv entered politics on 16 February 1981, when he addressed a national farmers' rally in Delhi. During this time, he was still an employee of Air India.

Advertising

                                

Advertising is the practice and techniques employed to bring attention to a product or service. Advertising aims to present a product or service in terms of utility, advantages, and qualities of interest to consumers. It is typically used to promote a specific good or service, but there are a wide range of uses, the most common being commercial advertisement.

Commercial advertisements often seek to generate increased consumption of their products or services through "branding", which associates a product name or image with certain qualities in the minds of consumers. On the other hand, ads that intend to elicit an immediate sale are known as direct-response advertising. Non-commercial entities that advertise more than consumer products or services include political parties, interest groups, religious organizations, and governmental agencies. Non-profit organizations may use free modes of persuasion, such as a public service announcement. Advertising may also help to reassure employees or shareholders that a company is viable or successful.

In the 19th century, soap businesses were among the first to employ large-scale advertising campaigns. Thomas J. Barratt was hired by Pears to be its brand manager—the first of its kind—and in addition to creating slogans and images, he recruited West End stage actress and socialite Lillie Langtry to become the poster girl for Pears, making her the first celebrity to endorse a commercial product. Modern advertising originated with the techniques introduced with tobacco advertising in the 1920s, most significantly with the campaigns of Edward Bernays, considered the founder of modern, "Madison Avenue" advertising.

Worldwide spending on advertising in 2015 amounted to an estimated US$529.43 billion. Advertising's projected distribution for 2017 was 40.4% on TV, 33.3% on digital, 9% on newspapers, 6.9% on magazines, 5.8% on outdoor, and 4.3% on radio. Internationally, the largest advertising agency groups are Omnicom, WPP, Publicis, Interpublic, and Dentsu.

History- Main article: History of advertising                                                                                          Bronze plate for printing an advertisement for the Liu family needle shop at Jinan, Song dynasty China. It is the world's earliest identified printed advertising medium. Edo period LEL flyer from 1806 for a traditional medicine called Kinseitan

Egyptians used papyrus to make sales messages and wall posters. Commercial messages and political campaign displays have been found in the ruins of Pompeii and ancient Arabia. Lost and found advertising on papyrus was common in ancient Greece and ancient Rome. Wall or rock painting for commercial advertising is another manifestation of an ancient advertising form, which is present to this day in many parts of Asia, Africa, and South America. The tradition of wall painting can be traced back to Indian rock art paintings that date back to 4000 BC.

In ancient China, the earliest advertising known was oral, as recorded in the Classic of Poetry of bamboo flutes played to sell confectionery. Advertisement usually takes the form of calligraphic signboards and inked papers. A copper printing plate dated back to the Song dynasty used to print posters in the form of a square sheet of paper with a rabbit logo with "Jinan Liu's Fine Needle Shop" and "We buy high-quality steel rods and make fine-quality needles, to be ready for use at home in no time" written above and below is considered the world's earliest identified printed advertising medium.

In Europe, as the towns and cities of the Middle Ages began to grow, and the general population was unable to read, instead of signs that read "cobbler", "miller", "tailor", or "blacksmith", images associated with their trade would be used such as a boot, a suit, a hat, a clock, a diamond, a horseshoe, a candle or even a bag of flour. Fruits and vegetables were sold in the city square from the backs of carts and wagons and their proprietors used street callers to announce their whereabouts. The first compilation of such advertisements was gathered in "Les Crieries de Paris", a thirteenth-century poem by Guillaume de la Villeneuve.

18th-19th century: Newspaper Advertising-                                                                                          Poster for Pears soap created under Thomas J. Barratt's leadership, 1900. Victoria and Albert Museum, London

In the 18th century, advertisements started to appear in weekly newspapers in England. These early print advertisements were used mainly to promote books and newspapers, which became increasingly affordable with advances in the printing press; and medicines, which were increasingly sought after. However, false advertising and so-called "quack" advertisements became a problem, which ushered in the regulation of advertising content.

In the United States, newspapers grew quickly in the first few decades of the 19th century, in part due to advertising. By 1822, the United States had more newspaper readers than any other country. About half of the content of these newspapers consisted of advertising, usually local advertising, with half of the daily newspapers in the 1810s using the word "advertiser" in their name.

"Beechams Pills: Worth a guinea a box", the first advertising slogan from August 1859. In August 1859, British pharmaceutical firm Beechams created a slogan for Beecham's Pills: "Beechams Pills: Worth a guinea a box", which is considered to be the world's first advertising slogan. The Beechams adverts would appear in newspapers all over the world, helping the company become a global brand. The phrase was said to be uttered by a satisfied lady purchaser from St Helens, Lancashire, the founder's hometown.

Beecham's slogan in the Los Angeles Herald, July 20, 1893. In June 1836, the French newspaper La Presse was the first to include paid advertising in its pages, allowing it to lower its price, extend its readership and increase its profitability and the formula was soon copied by all titles. Around 1840, Volney B. Palmer established the roots of the modern day advertising agency in Philadelphia. In 1842 Palmer bought large amounts of space in various newspapers at a discounted rate then resold the space at higher rates to advertisers. The actual ad – the copy, layout, and artwork – was still prepared by the company wishing to advertise; in effect, Palmer was a space broker. The situation changed when the first full-service advertising agency of N.W. Ayer & Son was founded in 1869 in Philadelphia. Ayer & Son offered to plan, create, and execute complete advertising campaigns for its customers. By 1900 the advertising agency had become the focal point of creative planning, and advertising was firmly established as a profession. Around the same time, in France, Charles-Louis Havas extended the services of his news agency, Havas to include advertisement brokerage, making it the first French group to organize. At first, agencies were brokers for advertisement space in newspapers.