Durga Ashtami

Durga Ashtami or Maha Ashtami is the eighth day of the Navaratri festival celebrated by Hindus in veneration of the goddess Durga. In Eastern India, Durga Ashatmi is also one of the most auspicious days of the five days-long Durga Puja festival. Traditionally, the festival is observed for 10 days in Hindu households, but the actual puja that takes place in the pandals is held over a period of 5 days (starting from Shashthi). In India, fasting is undertaken by Hindus on this holy occasion. People also get together on this day to perform the folk dance garba and wear colourful clothes. This day is also known for Astra Puja (the ritual worship of weapons); on this day, the weapons of Durga are worshipped. The occasion is also rendered Vira Ashtami to mark the usage of arms or martial arts on this day.

Description-                                                                                                                                                The eight day of Navaratri or Durga Puja celebrations is known as Durgashtami, or Durga Ashtami. It is also known as Mahashtami and is one of the most auspicious days according to Hinduism. It falls on bright lunar fortnight Ashtami tithi of Ashvina month according to the Hindu calendar.

It is believed in some regions, the goddess Chamunda appeared on this day from the forehead of Durga and annihilated Chanda and Munda, and Raktabija (the asuras (demons) who were associates of Mahishasura). The 64 Yoginis and Matrikas ( forms of Durga) are worshipped during the Durga Puja rituals on Mahashtami. The significance of the Matrikas is interpreted differently in different regions of India.

The Ashta Shakti worshipped during Durga Puja are Brahmani, Maheswari, Kaumari, Vaishnavi, Varahi, Narasinghi, Indrani and Chamunda. Worshippers of Mother Durga uphold her rituals every month on Masik Durgashtami. However during Navaratri, when her nine forms are worshipped, Durga Ashtami is revered on eighth day during Chaitra Navratri and subsequently on Shardiya Navratri.

Tradition-                                                                                                                                                      Kanya Puja performed to honour a young girl. A tradition associated with Durga Ashtami that originated in North India is to honour the kanyaka (young girls) with a ritual called the Kanya Puja. Kanya Puja is observed on the Navami (Ninth Day of Navaratri) and Ashtami. In this Tradition, a group of young, unmarried girls (five to seven) are invited into the home to honour them. The tradition is based on the belief that each of these young girls, represents the shakti (energy) of Durga on Earth. The group of girls are welcomed by washing their feet (a common ceremony in India to welcome someone), welcoming them into the home, and then the rituals of arati and puja are performed. After the rituals, the girls are fed sweets and foods and honoured with small gifts.

Happy Durga Ashtami 2025: Durga Ashtami, or Maha Ashtami, is among the most significant days of Navratri and Durga Puja, commemorating Goddess Durga’s triumph over Mahishasura. This year, it will be observed on Tuesday, September 30. The day holds immense spiritual importance for devotees. 

Happy Durga Ashtami 2025 wishes-                                                                                                      Wishing you a blessed Durga Ashtami! May Maa Durga shower her divine blessings on you and your family. May Goddess Durga bring peace, prosperity, and happiness into your life this Durga Ashtami. On this sacred day of Durga Ashtami, may Maa Durga remove all obstacles from your life. May the blessings of Maa Durga keep you safe and happy always. Happy Durga Ashtami! Durga Ashtami, also called Maha Ashtami, is the eighth day of Navratri and Durga Puja. Durga Ashtami, also called Maha Ashtami, is the eighth day of Navratri and Durga Puja. Sending you love and prayers on Durga Ashtami. May your life be filled with positivity and success.

Maa Durga is the embodiment of strength and courage. May she empower you this Durga Ashtami. On this holy day, may Maa Durga destroy all negativity in your life. Happy Durga Ashtami! May Maa Durga bless your home with joy, peace, and prosperity today and always. Celebrate the triumph of good over evil. Wishing you a joyous and blessed Durga Ashtami. May the divine power of Maa Durga guide and protect you every day. Happy Durga Ashtami!

Maha Durga Ashtami messages and greetings. Happy Durga Ashtami! May your day be filled with love, light, and positivity. Wishing you strength, courage, and happiness on this auspicious day. Durga Ashtami blessings to you and your family! May this Durga Ashtami bring joy, hope, and peace into your life.

Happy Durga Ashtami! Celebrate the power of goodness today. Sending you warm wishes for a blessed and joyful Durga Ashtami. Let’s celebrate the victory of good over evil. Happy Durga Ashtami! May this Durga Ashtami bring happiness, health, and prosperity to your home. Wishing you strength, courage, and divine blessings this Durga Ashtami. Happy Durga Ashtami! May Maa Durga always guide your path. Channel your inner strength this Durga Ashtami and shine like Maa Durga! Happy Durga Ashtami! Time to celebrate courage, power, and positivity. Keep calm and seek blessings from Maa Durga this Ashtami!

May your Durga Ashtami be as fierce, fearless, and fabulous as Maa Durga herself! Wishing you a powerful and blessed Durga Ashtami filled with joy and laughter. Happy Durga Ashtami! Let’s slay negativity and embrace positivity like Maa Durga. May this Durga Ashtami inspire you to be strong, fearless, and kind. Light, love, and Maa Durga’s blessings to you this Durga Ashtami! Wishing you happiness, health, and divine energy on Durga Ashtami. Happy Durga Ashtami! May the goddess of power and courage bless your life. May Maa Durga fill your life with courage, strength, and endless blessings this Durga Ashtami.

Wishing you a joyous Durga Ashtami! May the goddess guide you toward success, happiness, and peace. Wishing you strength, prosperity, and happiness on this holy Durga Ashtami.  May Maa Durga bless you with the courage to overcome all obstacles in life. On Durga Ashtami, may your home be filled with joy, peace, and divine energy.  Let this Maha Ashtami bring positivity, harmony, and success to your life. Wishing you endless blessings of Maa Durga today and always. May Goddess Durga’s power destroy negativity and bring light to your path.

Sending warm Durga Ashtami wishes for prosperity, health, and happiness. May your prayers be answered, and your life be filled with peace and love. On this sacred day, let’s celebrate Maa Durga’s strength and compassion.  Wishing you a Durga Ashtami filled with divine blessings and family togetherness.  May this auspicious day strengthen your spirit and bring abundance in life.  Celebrate the power of Maa Durga and invite positivity into your heart.  Wishing you inner peace, wisdom, and endless devotion on Durga Ashtami.  May Goddess Durga guide you towards truth, prosperity, and happiness.  On Maha Ashtami, may you find the courage to conquer all challenges. 

Wishing you the divine blessings of Maa Durga for success and well-being.  May your Durga Ashtami be full of devotion, faith, and festive joy.  Celebrate this special day with love, laughter, and Maa Durga’s grace.  Wishing you and your family strength, unity, and endless blessings.  May Maa Durga shower her divine light upon you today and forever.  "Wishing you strength, peace, and blessings on this sacred Durga Ashtami." "May Goddess Durga empower you and your family with her nine forms of blessings—fame, name, wealth, prosperity, education, happiness, health, power, and commitment." "May the divine light of Durga guide your life — Happy Durga Ashtami!"

"May Maa Durga bless you with power, knowledge, and bliss this Ashtami!" "Wishing you a blessed Durga Ashtami filled with love and strength." "Happy Durga Ashtami! May the goddess’s strength and courage fill your heart." "Warm greetings on Durga Ashtami to you. May the high spirits and bright colors of Durga Ashtami surround you and bring you prosperity and happiness." "May Goddess Durga bring you endless happiness and blessings." "Sending festive greetings of positivity and light." "May the blessings of the Goddess guide you always." "Channeling my inner goddess this Durga Ashtami "Power. Peace. Purity. Happy Ashtami vibes only "Strong like Durga, calm like Mahagauri.

"Feeling grateful and blessed on this sacred day." "May your feed be full of flowers and your heart full of blessings! #HappyAshtami" "Om jay Ambe gauri — Happy Durga Ashtami 2025" "May the divine mother’s light fill our hearts." "On Maa’s day — strength, peace, and blessings." "Blessed to witness the divine power of Maa Durga. Happy Ashtami! "Worship. Celebrate. Rejoice. It's Durga Ashtami today! 

"May Maa Durga empower you with courage to overcome all struggles and guide you towards success. Happy Durga Ashtami!" "May the fierce spirit of Maa Durga inspire you to overcome all challenges and bring peace and positivity in your life." "May the radiance of Mahagauri illuminate your life and dispel all darkness. Embrace the positivity and joy that Durga Ashtami brings."

"Wishing you strength, courage, and divine blessings this Durga Ashtami." "May Maa Durga bless you with strength, courage, and happiness. Let her divine light guide your path." "May the divine blessings of Maa Durga bring joy, prosperity, and good health to your life." "Durga Ashtami is a time for reflection and gratitude. Let us take a moment to appreciate the blessings in our lives."

India–Pakistan Cricket Match 2025

                                

The India–Pakistan cricket rivalry is one of the most intense sports rivalries in the world. Showdowns between the teams are considered some of the biggest matches in the world, and are among the most-viewed sport games.

India has won 12 International Cricket Council tournaments compared to Pakistan's 5. At senior level, India has won 7 ICC trophies (2 Cricket World Cup, 2 T20 World Cup, 3 Champions Trophy), while Pakistan has won 3 (1 Cricket World Cup, 1 T20 World Cup, and 1 Champions Trophy). India has overwhelmingly dominated Pakistan in ICC World Cups, winning 15 out of 16 matches played, this includes an 8-0 lead at the 50-over ODI World Cups and 7-1 lead in the T-20 World Cups.

The tense relations between the two nations, resulting from bitter diplomatic relations and conflict that originated during the Partition of British India into India and Pakistan in 1947, the Indo-Pakistani Wars, and the Kashmir conflict, laid the foundations for the emergence of a fierce sporting rivalry between the two nations who had shared a common cricketing heritage.

The two sides first played in 1952, when Pakistan toured India. Tests and, later, limited overs series have been played ever since, although a number of planned tours by both sides have been cancelled or aborted due to political factors. No cricket was played between the two countries between 1962 and 1977 due to two major wars in 1965 and 1971, and the 1999 Kargil War and the 2008 Mumbai terrorist attacks have also interrupted cricketing ties between the two nations.

The growth of large expatriate populations from both countries across the world led to neutral venues, including the United Arab Emirates and Canada, hosting bilateral and multilateral One Day International (ODI) series involving the two teams and the teams have met during International Cricket Council (ICC) competitions. Tickets for matches in which the two teams play each other at international competitions are in high demand, with over 800,000 applications for tickets made for the 2019 Cricket World Cup meeting between the two sides;[5][6] the television transmission of the match was watched by 273 million viewers.

Players from both teams routinely face extreme pressure to win and are threatened by extreme reactions in defeat. Extreme fan reactions to defeats in key matches have been recorded, with a limited degree of hooliganism. At the same time, India–Pakistan matches have also offered opportunities for cricket diplomacy as a means to improve relations between the two countries, allowing heads of state and cricket followers from either country to travel to the other to watch the matches.

The last series played by both teams was the 2007 Test and ODI series played. However, following the November 2008 terror attacks in Mumbai, which was orchestrated by Pakistan based terror group Lashkar-e-Taiba, India suspended the planned 2009 series, and all future engagements against Pakistan. The attack eventually led to detrimental consequences for both nations, in diplomacy and cricket. Since then, as both teams don't play in bilateral series and meet only in multi-nation tournaments, the heat of the rivalry has faded quite a lot with India emerging as the winner on most occasions prompting Indian Captain Suryakumar Yadav to say that it isn't a rivalry anymore.

History-                                                                                                                                                          See also: India–Pakistan relations and Cricket in South Asia.                                                                      The Partition of British India in 1947 that led to the creation of independent Indian and Pakistani states was characterised by bloody conflict between ethnic groups that left one million people dead and led to the mass-migration of an estimated ten million people between either nation. The legacy of Partition and subsequent territorial disputes have helped create heated rivalries in field hockey, association football, and especially in cricket, which had been developed during British colonial rule and is the most popular sport in both nations.

Captains Abdul Kardar of Pakistan (left) and Lala Amarnath of India (right) with Indian President Rajendra Prasad (center) on the day of the first test, 16 October 1952

Pakistan became a member of the Imperial Cricket Conference (now the International Cricket Council) in 1948,[A] becoming a Full Member[B] in July 1952.[C] Their tour of India later the same year saw the team play their first Test matches. They lost the first Test in Delhi to India, but won the second Test in Lucknow, which led to an angry reaction from the home crowd against the Indian players. India clinched the Test series after winning the third Test in Bombay, but the intense pressure affected the players of both teams to the point that they pursued mainly defensive tactics that led to drawn matches and whole series without a victory. When India toured Pakistan in 1955, thousands of Indian fans were granted visas to go to the Pakistani city of Lahore to watch the Test match, but both the 1955 series and Pakistan's tour of India in 1961 ended in drawn series, with neither team being able to win a single Test match. Complaints about the fairness of umpires became routine.

The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 and subsequent War of 1971 put a hold on matches between the two sides that lasted till 1978, when India toured Pakistan and cricket between the two countries resumed for a brief period. In the post-1971 period, politics became a direct factor in the holding of cricketing events. India has suspended cricketing ties with Pakistan several times following terrorist attacks or other hostilities. The resumption of cricketing ties in 1978 came with the emergence of heads of government in both India and Pakistan who were not directly connected with the 1971 war and coincided with their formal initiatives to normalise bilateral relations.

In the late 1980s and for most of the 1990s, India and Pakistan played each other only at neutral venues such as Sharjah in the United Arab Emirates and in the Canadian city of Toronto, where large audiences of expatriates regularly watched matches between the sides. The series between the teams in Canada in the 1990s and early 2000s were officially known as the "Friendship Cup". Sharjah, even though a neutral venue, was considered as the "back yard of Pakistan" given the close proximity and the massive support the team generated.

The rise of multinational competitions, such as the Cricket World Cup, ICC T20 World Cup, ICC Champions Trophy, the Austral-Asia Cup, and the Asia Cup led to more regular, albeit briefer, contests between the two sides.

Anil Kumble became the second bowler in cricket history to take ten wickets in an innings in a match against Pakistan in 1999

In 1999, immediately following Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee's historic visit to Pakistan, the Pakistani team toured India for a series of Test matches and One Day Internationals. The Kargil War later in the year caused tensions between the countries and cricket was again suspended. Vajpayee's peace initiative of 2003 led to India touring Pakistan after a gap of almost 15 years. Subsequent exchange tours were held in January to February 2006 in Pakistan and November to December 2007 in India. However, the November 2008 terror attacks in Mumbai led to the suspension of India's planned tour of Pakistan in 2009 and all future engagements in Pakistan. India has refused to play any form of series against Pakistan since then.

Play from the last Test Match meeting between India and Pakistan, Bangalore, December 2007.

The 2009 attack on the Sri Lanka national cricket team in Lahore led to the suspension of international tours of Pakistan, with no Test series played in the country for a decade and Pakistan was removed as a co-host for the 2011 Cricket World Cup which had been due to be played across the Indian subcontinent.[D] India and Pakistan qualified for the first semi-final of the tournament and the Indian government invited the Pakistani Prime Minister Yousuf Raza Gilani to watch the match along with his Indian counterpart, Manmohan Singh.

The second match of the series, Kolkata, January 2013.                                                                              India and Pakistan during the 2013 ICC Champions Trophy.

Bilateral ties finally resumed when the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) invited the Pakistan national team to tour India for three ODIs and two T20Is in December 2012. In June 2014, the Pakistan Cricket Board (PCB) announced that an agreement to play six bilateral series across eight years between the two teams had reached. After lengthy negotiations involving offers and counter-offers on the venues and scheduling of the first of these series in December 2015, the boards were unable to reach an agreement. In May 2017, the BCCI accounted that it would need approval from the Indian government before a bilateral series could go ahead. There was no further progress, despite members of both boards meeting in Dubai to discuss the matter.

In October 2021, during the T20 World Cup, the teams played their 200th international match against each other. Pakistan won the fixture by ten wickets, their first in 13 attempts against India in World Cup tournaments of either format.

In October 2021, following a meeting with the ACC, Ramiz Raja confirmed that Pakistan would host the Asia Cup in 2023, with Sri Lanka hosting the 2022 edition. In October 2022, the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) secretary and ACC President Jay Shah announced that India would not travel to Pakistan, citing security concerns, and that the Asia Cup 2023 would take place in a neutral venue. In December 2022, the then PCB chairman Ramiz Raja said that Pakistan might consider pulling out of the tournament if their hosting rights were withdrawn because of India's unwillingness to travel to Pakistan. The PCB had threatened to boycott the 2023 Cricket World Cup in India after the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) refused to send a team to the Asia Cup. This issue was later resolved, and Pakistan eventually participated in the 2023 Cricket World Cup in India.

Virat Kohli is the only player to win Player of the Match vs Pakistan in all ICC formats events

In January 2023, ACC confirmed the teams and groups of the Asia Cup, with both India and Pakistan taking part. In March 2023, it was proposed that Pakistan remain as hosts and that all India matches - including at least two India-Pakistan contests - would be played at a neutral venue yet to be confirmed. The hybrid model proposed by Pakistan was rejected by Sri Lanka and Bangladesh. In response, PCB Chairman Najam Sethi proposed two options. The first option was that India play all their matches at a neutral venue with Pakistan hosting the rest of the teams. The second option was that four matches in the group stage take place in Pakistan whereas the second phase, in which matches played by the Indian team followed by the next stage matches including the final, be played at a neutral venue. Sri Lanka and Bangladesh agreed to the second option. On 15 June 2023, the Asian Cricket Council announced that the tournament would be organized in a hybrid model with four matches being held in Pakistan, and the remaining nine in Sri Lanka.

India and Pakistan met twice in this Asia Cup. Though the first match in the Group stage yielded a no result due to rain, India defeated Pakistan by an enormous margin in the Super Four clash between the 2 sides, scoring 356 for the loss of only 2 wickets. India in this match not only set their highest-ever score in ODI cricket against Pakistan, but also defeated them with the highest ever run margin of 228 runs, bundling Pakistan out for 128. India would eventually go on to win this Asia Cup, while Pakistan would be knocked out in the super-fours round. India won the match against Pakistan at the 2024 Men's T20 World Cup by 6 runs, which was also the first ICC tournament to be held in United States of America. Again India defeated Pakistan this time in the 2025 ICC Champions Trophy by 6 wickets with Virat Kohli scoring his 51st century in ODI cricket.

Garba

 Garba is a form of Circle dance and Social dance form originating in Gujarat, and played across the Gujarati diaspora worldwide. Garba is traditionally danced as part of the annual Hindu festival of Navratri (or "Nine Nights"), held in celebration of Amba Mata, or the primordial mother. Typically, at the end of each Navratri night of dance, the community also plays raas, a sibling circle-dance form, in which players hold a stick in each hand and tap out a rhythm with a partner. Everyone is invited to join garba and raas, and people of all ages dance together. Traditionally garba is played around an earthen pot with holes on the sides, revealing a flame inside (a symbol of the jiva or soul inside the womb). Alternatively, a picture or statue of the Hindu goddess Amba, an incarnation of Durga, may be placed in the center of the circle. When there are large numbers of participants, they make concentric circles to form rings around the object of veneration.

Etymology-                                                                                                                                                     The word garba comes from the Sanskrit word for "womb" and so implies gestation or pregnancy — life. Traditionally, the dance is performed around a clay lantern with a light inside, called a garbha deep ("womb lamp"). This lantern represents life, and the fetus in the womb. The dancers thus honor Amba, the feminine form of divinity. As Garba is performed in a circle it is a symbol of the Hindu view of Kāla ("time"). The rings of dancers revolve in cycles, as time in Hindu is cyclical. As the cycle of time revolve, from birth, to life, to death and again to rebirth, the only thing that is constant is the Goddess, that one unmoving symbol in the midst of all of this unending and infinite movement.

The circular dance symbolizes that the feminine divinity symbolized as Amba is the only cyclic constant in a constantly changing universe (jagat). The garbha deep has another symbolic interpretation. The vessel itself is a symbol of the body, within whom Divinity (in the form of the Goddess) resides. Garba is danced around this symbol to honor the fact that all humans have the Divine energy of Devi within them.

Dance-                                                                                                                                                            Garba dressing: traditional dressing male is kediyu while the traditional female dress is chaniya choli. Young girl dressed in Gagra choli. Modern Garba is also heavily influenced by Dandiya Raas, a dance traditionally performed by men. The merger of these two dances has formed the high-energy dance that is seen today.

Both men and women usually wear colorful clothes while performing garba and dandiya. The girls and the women wear Chaniya choli, a three-piece dress with a choli, which is an embroidered and colorful blouse, teamed with chaniya, which is the flared, skirt-like bottom, with intricate work and dupatta, which is usually worn in the traditional Gujarati manner. Chaniya Cholis are decorated with beads, shells, mirrors, stars, embroidery work, mati, etc. Traditionally, women adorn themselves with jhumkas (large earrings), necklaces, bindi, bajubandh, chudas and kangans, kamarbandh, payal, and mojiris. Boys and men wear kafni pyjamas with a Ghagra - a short round kurta - above the knees and pagadi on the head with bandhini dupatta, kada, and mojiris. In Gujarati, these clothes worn by men is called 'Kediyu'. Over the years, the interest in Garba has only increased. There is a huge interest in Garba among the youth of India and in particular, the Gujarati diaspora. Traditionally, this dance is performed in concentric circles and the entire group performs once step in sync, with the beat starting slow and slowly catching on speed.

Garba and Dandiya Raas are also popular in the United States where over 20 universities have Raas/Garba competitions on a huge scale every year with professional choreography. The Canadian city of Toronto now hosts North America's largest annual garba by number of attendees.[4] Garba is also very popular in the United Kingdom where there are a number of Gujarati communities who hold their own Garba nights and widely popular among the Indian diaspora worldwide.

Women and men performing Garba as part of huge Navratri celebrations in Vadodara.

Tradition-                                                                                                                                                        Garba is a Gujarati folk dance celebrated during Navratri, a celebration lasting nine nights. Garba songs typically revolve around the subjects of the nine goddesses. Garba styles vary from place to place in Gujarat.

The traditional clothing of the Garba dancer is red, pink, yellow, orange, and brightly colored chanya, choli or ghagra choli; dupatta with bandhani (tie-dye), abhla (big mirrors) or with thick Gujarati borders. They also wear heavy jewellery, such as 2–3 necklaces, sparkling bangles, waist belts, and long oxidized earrings. Traditionally men wear an ethnic kedia and a pajama or a dhoti with an oxidized bracelet and necklace. Normally, the dandiya sticks are Wooden.

Garba is a traditional dance form performed during Navratri. It is performed in the Indian state of Gujarat , especially during the Shardiya Navratri period. The name is derived from the Sanskrit word Deepgarbha. Women are particularly involved in this dance. Sometimes men also participate in this dance to pay homage to the goddess.

Garba Ghat-Content                                                                                                                                      Couple dressed in traditional garba dance attire. This festival is associated with the creative power of women, that is, the ability to create new things. During the Shardiya Navratri, a pot is placed in the middle of the Garba dance. Holes are made in this clay pot and a lamp is lit in it. Women and girls circle around this pot and perform traditional dances in praise of the goddess. This pot or Kumbh is considered a symbol of the creative power of women.

Public appearance-                                                                                                                                      Garba, a traditional religious dance from Gujarat, began to be performed in public around 1980. It was performed during the Sharadi Navratri festival in various temples in Tyapuri, Mewar. The form of the dance was modernized to appeal to the youth. Modern songs were sung along with traditional goddess songs and Garba dance was performed to that tune. Dancing with a dandiya is a modern commercial form of Garba dance. Since Garba is a form of art associated with goddess worship and entertainment, it is enjoyed by Gujaratis and other Indian citizens throughout India every year during the Sharadi Navratri festival.

Mugger crocodile

 The mugger crocodile is a medium-sized broad-snouted crocodile, also known as mugger and marsh crocodile. It is native to freshwater habitats from south-eastern Iran to the Indian subcontinent, where it inhabits marshes, lakes, rivers and artificial ponds. It rarely reaches a body length of 5 m (16 ft 5 in) and is a powerful swimmer, but also walks on land in search of suitable waterbodies during the hot season. Both young and adult mugger crocodiles dig burrows to which they retreat when the ambient temperature drops below 5 °C (41 °F) or exceeds 38 °C (100 °F). Females dig holes in the sand as nesting sites and lay up to 46 eggs during the dry season. The sex of hatchlings depends on temperature during incubation. Both parents protect the young for up to one year. They feed on insects, and adults prey on fish, reptiles, birds and mammals.

The mugger crocodile evolved at least 4.19 million years ago and has been a symbol for the fructifying and destructive powers of the rivers since the Vedic period. It was first scientifically described in 1831 and is protected by law in Iran, India and Sri Lanka. Since 1982, it has been listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. Outside protected areas, it is threatened by conversion of natural habitats, gets entangled in fishing nets and is killed in human–wildlife conflict situations and in traffic accidents.

Taxonomy and evolution-                                                                                                                      Crocodilus palustris was the scientific name proposed by René Lesson in 1831 who described the type specimen from the Gangetic plains. In subsequent years, several naturalists and curators of natural history museums described zoological specimens and proposed different names, including:

C. bombifrons by John Edward Gray in 1844 for a specimen sent by the Museum of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal to the British Museum of Natural History. C. trigonops also by Gray in 1844 for a young mugger specimen from India.

Evolution -                                                                                                                                           Phylogenetic analysis of 23 crocodilian species indicated that the genus Crocodylus most likely originated in Australasia about 13.72 to 8.28 million years ago. The freshwater crocodile (C. johnstoni) is thought to have been the first species that genetically diverged from the common ancestor of the genus about 12.45 to 7.17 million years ago. The sister group comprising saltwater crocodile (C. porosus), Siamese crocodile (C. siamensis) and mugger crocodile diverged about 11.65 to 6.52 million years ago. The latter diverged from this group about 8.91 to 4.19 million years ago. A paleogenomics analysis indicated that Crocodylus likely originated in Africa and radiated towards Southeast Asia and the Americas, diverging from its closest recent relative, the extinct Voay of Madagascar, around 25 million years ago near the Oligocene/Miocene boundary. Within Crocodylus, the mugger crocodile's closest living relatives are the Siamese crocodile and the saltwater crocodile.

Fossil crocodile specimens excavated in the Sivalik Hills closely resemble the mugger crocodile in the shortness of the premaxillae and in the form of the nasal openings. In Andhra Pradesh's Prakasam district, a 30.6 cm (12.0 in) long fossilized skull of a mugger crocodile was found in a volcanic ash bed that probably dates to the late Pleistocene. Crocodylus palaeindicus from late Pliocene sediments in the Sivalik Hills is thought to be an ancestor of the mugger crocodile. Fossil remains of C. palaeindicus were also excavated in the vicinity of Bagan in central Myanmar.

Phylogenetic relationships of the mugger crocodile based on analysis of 12 concatenated mitochondrial DNA sequences

Crocodylus-                                                                                                                                         American crocodile (C. acutus),Orinoco crocodile (C. intermedius), Cuban crocodile (C. rhombifer)Morelet's crocodile (C. moreletii), crocodile (C. niloticus), Saltwater crocodile (C. porosus)Mugger crocodile, Siamese crocodile (C. siamensis), New Guinea crocodile (C. novaeguineae)Philippine crocodile (C. mindorensis),Freshwater crocodile (C. johnstoni)                  based on Illumina sequencing of mitogenomes

Crocodylus-                                                                                                                                             Orinoco crocodile, American crocodile, Cuban crocodile, Morelet's crocodile, Nile crocodile, Mugger crocodile, Siamese crocodile, Saltwater crocodile, New Guinea crocodile, Philippine crocodile, Freshwater crocodile

Below cladogram is from a tip dating study, for which morphological, molecular DNA sequencing and stratigraphic fossil age data were simultaneously used to establish the inter-relationships within Crocodylidae. This cladogram was revised in a paleogenomics study.

Crocodylidae- Osteolaeminae, West African slender-snouted crocodile Mecistops cataphractusEuthecodon†, Brochuchus†, Rimasuchus†,Osborn's dwarf crocodile Osteolaemus osborniDwarf crocodile Osteolaemus tetraspis

Crocodylus-                                                                                                                                                 Crocodylus anthropophagus†, Crocodylus thorbjarnarsoni†, Crocodylus palaeindicus†, Crocodylus Tirari Desert†

Asia+Australia-                                                                                                                                    Freshwater crocodile, New Guinea crocodile, Philippine crocodile, Saltwater crocodile ,Siamese crocodile, Mugger crocodile ,Africa+New World, Crocodylus checchiai†

Illustration of mugger dentition-                                                                                                             Mugger crocodile hatchlings are pale olive with black spots. Adults are dark olive to grey or brown. The head is rough without any ridges and has large scutes around the neck that is well separated from the back. Scutes usually form four, rarely six longitudinal series and 16 or 17 transverse series. The limbs have keeled scales with serrated fringes on outer edges, and outer toes are extensively webbed. The snout is slightly longer than broad with 19 upper teeth on each side. The symphysis of the lower jaw extends to the level of the fourth or fifth tooth. The premaxillary suture on the palate is nearly straight or curved forwards, and the nasal bones separate the premaxilla above.

The mugger crocodile is considered a medium-sized crocodilian, but has the broadest snout among living crocodiles. It has a powerful tail and webbed feet. Its visual, hearing and smelling senses are acute. Adult female muggers are 2 to 2.5 m (6 ft 7 in to 8 ft 2 in) on average; males usually measure 3 to 3.5 m (9 ft 10 in to 11 ft 6 in), but rarely reach a length of 5 m (16 ft 5 in). The two largest known muggers measured 5.63 m (18 ft 6 in) and were killed in Sri Lanka. One individual weighing 207 kg (456 lb) had a bite force of 7,295 N (1,640 lbf). Large males may reach a weight of 450 kg (1,000 lb).

The largest zoological specimen in the British Museum of Natural History measures 3.7 m (12 ft 2 in). One male mugger caught in Pakistan of about 3 m (9 ft 10 in) weighed 195 kg (430 lb).

Mugger in Malataj, Gujarat-                                                                                                                    The mugger crocodile occurs in southern Iran, Pakistan, Nepal, India and Sri Lanka up to an elevation of 420 m (1,380 ft). It inhabits freshwater lakes, rivers and marshes, and prefers slow-moving, shallow water bodies. It also thrives in artificial reservoirs and irrigation canals.

In Iran, the mugger occurs along rivers in Sistan and Baluchestan Provinces along the Iran–Pakistan border. A population of around 200 mugger crocodiles lives on the Iranian Makran coast near Chabahar. Due to human activity and a long drought in the late 1990s and early 2000s, it had been pushed to the brink of extinction. Following several tropical cyclones in 2007 and 2010, much of the habitat of the mugger crocodiles has been restored as formerly dry lakes and hamuns were flooded again.

In Pakistan, a small population lives in 21 ponds around Dasht River; in the winter of 2007–08, 99 individuals were counted. By 2017, the population had declined to 25 individuals. In Sindh Province, small mugger populations occur in wetlands of Deh Akro-2 and Nara Desert Wildlife Sanctuary, near Chotiari Dam, in the Nara Canal and around Haleji lake.

In Nepal's Terai, it occurs in the wetlands of Shuklaphanta and Bardia National Parks, Ghodaghodi Tal, Chitwan National Park and Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve.

In India, it occurs in:                                                                                                                            Rajasthan along the Chambal, Ken and Son Rivers, and in Ranthambore National Park Gujarat along the Vishwamitri River and several reservoirs and lakes in Kutch, Madhya Pradesh's National Chambal Sanctuary, Uttarakhand's Rajaji National Park, Corbett Tiger Reserve and Lansdowne Forest Division, Uttar Pradesh's Katarniaghat and Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuaries, Odisha's Simlipal National Park and along Mahanadi and Sabari Rivers In 2019, 82 individuals were recorded in the river systems of Simlipal National Park., Telangana's Manjira Wildlife Sanctuar, Maharashtra's Kadavi and Warna Rivers, and Savitri River in Raigad District., Goa's Salaulim Reservoir, Zuari River and in small lakes Karnataka along Kaveri and Kabini Rivers, in Ranganthittu Bird Sanctuary, Nagarhole National Park and Tungabhadra Reservoir, Kerala's Parambikulam Reservoir and Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu's Amaravathi Reservoir, Moyar and Kaveri rivers.                                                                          In Sri Lanka, it occurs in Wilpattu, Yala and Bundala National Parks. Between 1991 and 1996, it was recorded in another 102 localities.

In Bangladesh, it was historically present in the northern parts of the Sundarbans, where four to five captive individuals survived in an artificial pond by the 1980s. It is possibly locally extinct in the country. In Bhutan, it became extinct in the late 1960s, but a few captive-bred individuals were released in the Manas River in the late 1990s. It is considered locally extinct in Myanmar.

Muggers basking on sand banks-                                                                                                                  The mugger crocodile is a powerful swimmer that uses its tail and hind feet to move forward, change direction and submerge. It belly-walks, with its belly touching ground, at the bottom of waterbodies and on land. During the hot dry season, it walks over land at night to find suitable wetlands and spends most of the day submerged in water. During the cold season it basks on riverbanks, individuals are tolerant of others during this period. Territorial behaviour increases during the mating season.

Like all crocodilians, the mugger crocodile is a thermoconformer and has an optimal body temperature of 30 to 35 °C (86 to 95 °F) and risks dying of freezing or hyperthermia when exposed to temperatures below 5 °C (41 °F) or above 38 °C (100 °F), respectively. It digs burrows to retreat from extreme temperatures and other harsh climatic conditions. Burrows are between 0.6 and 6 m (2.0 and 19.7 ft) deep, with entrances above the water level and a chamber at the end that is big enough to allow the mugger to turn around. Temperatures inside remains constant at 19.2 to 29 °C (66.6 to 84.2 °F), depending on region.

Hunting and diet-                                                                                                                                            The mugger crocodile preys on fish, snakes, turtles, birds and mammals including monkeys, squirrels, rodents, otters and dogs. It also scavenges on dead animals. During dry seasons, muggers walk many kilometers over land in search of water and prey. Hatchlings feed mainly on insects such as beetles, but also on crabs and shrimp and on vertebrates later on. It seizes and drags potential prey approaching watersides into the water, when the opportunity arises. Adult muggers were observed feeding on a flapshell turtle and a tortoise. Subadult and adult muggers favour fish, but also prey on small to medium-sized ungulates up to the size of chital (Axis axis). At the Chambal River, muggers have attacked water buffaloes, cattle and goats. In Bardia National Park, a mugger was observed caching a chital kill beneath the roots of a tree and returning to its basking site; a part of the deer was still wedged among the roots on the next day. In the same national park, a mugger caught a brown fish owl (Ketupa zeylonensis); several instances of water bird feathers in mugger dung have been reported. Muggers have also been observed preying and feeding on pythons. In Yala National Park, a mugger killed a large Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) and devoured pieces over several hours.

Tool use-                                                                                                                                                    Mugger crocodiles have been documented using lures to hunt birds. This means they are among the first reptiles recorded to use tools. By balancing sticks and branches on their heads, they lure birds that are looking for nesting material. This strategy is particularly effective during the nesting season.

Reproduction-                                                                                                                                      Female muggers obtain sexual maturity at a body length of around 1.8–2.2 m (5 ft 11 in – 7 ft 3 in) at the age of about 6.5 years, and males at around 2.6 m (8 ft 6 in) body length. The reproduction cycle starts earliest in November at the onset of the cold season with courtship and mating. Between February and June, females dig 35–56 cm (14–22 in) deep holes for nesting between 1 and 2,000 m (3 ft 3 in and 6,561 ft 8 in) away from the waterside. They lay up to two clutches with 8 –46 eggs each. Eggs weigh 128 g (4.5 oz) on average. Laying of one clutch usually takes less than half an hour. Thereafter, females scrape sand over the nest to close it. Males have been observed to assist females in digging and protecting nest sites. Hatching season is two months later, between April and June in south India, and in Sri Lanka between August and September. Then females excavate the young, pick them up in their snouts and take them to the water. Both females and males protect the young for up to one year.

Healthy hatchlings develop at a temperature range of 28–33 °C (82–91 °F). Sex ratio of hatched eggs depends on incubation temperature and exposure of nests to sunshine. Only females develop at constant temperatures of 28–31 °C (82–88 °F), and only males at 32.5 °C (90.5 °F). Percentage of females in a clutch decreases at constant temperatures between 32.6 and 33 °C (90.7 and 91.4 °F), and of males between 31 and 32.4 °C (87.8 and 90.3 °F). Temperature in natural nests is not constant but varies between nights and days. Foremost females hatch in natural early nests when initial temperature inside nests ranges between 26.4 and 28.9 °C (79.5 and 84.0 °F). The percentage of male hatchlings increases in late nests located in sunny sites. Hatchlings are 26–31 cm (10–12 in) long and weigh 75 g (2.6 oz) on average when one month old. They grow about 4.25 cm (1.67 in) per month and reach a body length of 90–170 cm (35–67 in) when two years old.

Mugger crocodile and gharial-                                                                                                                    The distribution of the mugger crocodile overlaps with that of the saltwater crocodile in a few coastal areas, but it barely enters brackish water and prefers shallow waterways. It is an apex predator in freshwater ecosystems. It is sympatric with the gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) in the Rapti and Narayani Rivers, in the eastern Mahanadi, and in tributaries of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers.

The Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) occasionally fights mugger crocodiles off prey and rarely preys on adult mugger crocodiles in Ranthambore National Park.[72] The Asiatic lion (Panthera leo leo) sometimes preys on crocodiles on the banks of the Kamleshwar Dam in Gir National Park during dry, hot months.

Threats-                                                                                                                                                        The mugger crocodile is threatened by habitat destruction because of conversion of natural habitats for agricultural and industrial use. As humans encroach into its habitat, the incidents of conflict increase. Muggers are entangled in fishing equipment and drown, and are killed in areas where fishermen perceive them as competition. Major wetlands in Pakistan were drained in the 1990s by dams and channels to funnel natural streams and agricultural runoffs into rivers.

In Gujarat, two muggers were found killed, one in 2015 with the tail cut off and internal organs missing; the other in 2017, also with the tail cut off. The missing body parts indicate that the crocodiles were sacrificed in superstitious practices or used as aphrodisiacs. Between 2005 and 2018, 38 mugger crocodiles were victims of traffic accidents on roads and railway tracks in Gujarat; 29 were found dead, four died during treatment, and five were returned to the wild after medical care. In 2017, a dead mugger was found on a railway track in Rajasthan.

Conservation-                                                                                                                                                The mugger crocodile is listed in CITES Appendix I, hence international commercial trade is prohibited. It has been listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List since 1982. By 2013, less than 8,700 mature individuals were estimated to live in the wild and no population unit to comprise more than 1,000 individuals.

In India, it has been protected since 1972 under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, which prohibits catching, killing and transporting a crocodile without a permit; offenders face imprisonment and a fine. In Sri Lanka, it was listed in Schedule IV of the Fauna & Flora Protection Ordinance in 1946, which allowed for shooting one crocodile with a permit. Today, it is strictly protected, but law enforcement in Sri Lanka is lacking. In Iran, the mugger crocodile is listed as endangered and has been legally protected since 2013; capturing and killing a crocodile is punished with a fine of 100 million Iranian rials.

Since large muggers occasionally take livestock, this leads to conflict with local people living close to mugger habitat. In Maharashtra, local people are compensated for loss of close relatives and livestock. Local people in Baluchestan respect the mugger crocodile as a water living creature and do not harm it. If an individual kills livestock, the owner is compensated for the loss. The mugger crocodile is translocated in severe conflict cases.

A total of 1,193 captive bred muggers were released to restock populations in 28 protected areas in India between 1978 and 1992. Production of new offspring was halted by the Indian Government in 1994.

In culture-                                                                                                                                                     Makara on a beam from the Bharhut Stupa, now in the Indian Museum, Kolkata. The Sanskrit word मकर (makara) refers to the crocodile and a mythical crocodile-like animal. The Hindi word for crocodile is मगर (magar). In English language, both names mugger and magar were used around the turn of the 20th century. The names 'marsh crocodile' and 'broad-snouted crocodile' have been used since the late 1930s.

The crocodile is acknowledged as the prototype of the makara and symbolises both the fructifying and the destructive powers of the rivers. It is the animal vehicle of the Vedic deity Varuna and of several nature spirits called yakshas. In Hindu mythology, it represents virility as a vehicle of Ganga and as an emblem of Kamadeva. A stone carving of a mugger crocodile was part of a beam of a gateway to the Bharhut Stupa built around 100 BC.

The traditional biography of the Indian saint Adi Shankara includes an incident where he is grabbed by a crocodile in the Kaladi river, which releases him only after his mother reluctantly let him choose the ascetic path of a Sannyasa. The Muslim saint Pīr Mango is said to have taken care of crocodiles and created a stream to trickle out of a rock near Karachi in the 13th century. This place was later walled around, and about 40 mugger crocodiles were kept in the reservoir called Magar Talao in the 1870s; they were fed by both Hindu and Muslim pilgrims. Mugger crocodiles have also been kept in tanks near Hindu temples built in the vicinity of rivers; these crocodiles are considered sacred. In the early 20th century, young married women fed the crocodiles in Khan Jahan Ali's Tank in Jessore in the hope of being blessed with children.

Vasava, Gamit and Chodhri tribes in Gujarat worship the crocodile god Mogra Dev asking for children, good crops and milk yield of their cows. They carve wooden statues symbolising Mogra Dev and mount them on poles. Their offerings during the installation ceremony include rice, milk, wine, heart and liver of a chicken, and a mixture of vermillion, oil and coconut fibres. Fatal attacks of mugger crocodiles on humans were documented in Gujarat and Maharashtra, but they rarely consumed the victims who died of drowning.

A fable from the Jataka tales of Buddhist traditions features a clever monkey outwitting a crocodile. Three folktales feature crocodiles and jackals. A mugger crocodile is one of the characters in The Undertakers, a chapter of The Second Jungle Book. The children's book Adventures of a Nepali Frog features the character Mugger, the crocodile who lives by the Rapti River in Chitwan National Park.

Etymology-                                                                                                                                                The Sanskrit word makara is thought to derive from Proto-Dravidian *nek-V-ḷ- meaning "crocodile," with cognates in Kannada negal, negale ("alligator"), Tulu negaḷu ("alligator"), and Telugu negaḍu ("a marine animal which entangles swimmers"). This may have been derived from the root *neka- ("to rise, fly, jump, leap"), referring to the crocodile's jumping behavior when catching prey.

Alternatively, the word is traced to Proto-Dravidian *mokaray- ("crocodile"), a verbal noun from *mok- / *moṅku- meaning "to eat greedily, devour" (DEDR 5127 + 4897). This etymology explains widespread cognates including Bengali makar, Hindi magar, Tamil makaram and Telugu makaramu. The phonological change from *mokara to makara reflects the absence of the short -o- vowel in early Indo-Aryan languages.

The Dravidian origin reflects early language contact, as Aryan speakers migrating from the Eurasian Steppe would not have had inherited words for crocodiles, adopting local terms upon reaching South Asia.

Durga Puja

                                           

Durga Puja, also known as Durgotsava or Sharadotsava, is a major Hindu festival honouring the goddess Durga and commemorating her victory over Mahishasura. In 2021, 'Durga Puja in Kolkata' was inscribed on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

The festival is observed in the Indian calendar in the month of Ashvin (September -October) on the Hindu lunisolar calendar. It lasts ten days, with the final five being most prominent. Even though Durga Puja and Navaratri are observed simultaneously dedicated to the Hindu goddess Durga, but they are not the same festival.

The puja is performed in homes and public spaces with temporary structures (known as pandals), religious recitations, cultural performances, visiting, feasting, and processions; it is central to the Shaktism tradition.

Scriptures portray Durga’s defeat of Mahishasura, often interpreted as the triumph of good over evil; some traditions also link the festival with post-monsoon harvest themes. Durga Puja coincides with Navaratri and Dussehra celebrations observed by other traditions of Hinduism.

Alongside Durga, devotees commonly venerate Lakshmi, Saraswati, Ganesha and Kartikeya. Major public celebrations run from Mahalaya to Vijayadashami and conclude with immersion of the images; practices vary by region.

Durga Puja is an old tradition with medieval textual references and detailed manuals from at least the 14th century; elite and community forms expanded under early modern and colonial patronage.

Names-                                                                                                                                                           In West Bengal, Odisha, Assam, Jharkhand and Tripura, Durga Puja is also called Akalbodhan (literally, Sharadiya pujo or puja ("autumnal worship"), Sharodotsab ("festival of autumn"), Maha pujo ("grand puja"), Maayer pujo ("worship of the Mother"), Durga pujo, or merely Puja(In Odisha, Bihar) or Pujo. In Bangladesh, Durga Puja has historically been celebrated as Bhagabati puja. Maa Durga is known as the Goddess of Power (feminine) which represents triumph of Goodness over evil.

Durga Puja is also referred to by the names of related Shakta Hindu festivals such as Navaratri, celebrated on the same days elsewhere in India; such as in Odisha, Bihar, Jharkhand, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Kerala, and Maharashtra,[A] Kullu Dussehra, celebrated in Kullu Valley, Himachal Pradesh;[B] Mysore Dussehra celebrated in Mysore, Karnataka;[C] Bommai Golu, celebrated in Tamil Nadu; Bommala Koluvu, celebrated in Andhra Pradesh;[D] and Bathukamma, celebrated in Telangana.

History and origins-Further information: Durga and Akalabodhana                                                            Durga is an ancient goddess of Hinduism according to available archeological and textual evidence. However, the origins of Durga Puja are unclear and undocumented.

The Dadhimati Mata Temple of Rajasthan preserves a Durga-related inscription from chapter 10 of Devi Mahatmya. The temple inscription has been dated by modern methods to 608 CE.

13th-14th century Durga statue from Ambari, Guwahati, Assam.

The name Durga, and related terms, appear in Vedic literature, such as in the Rigveda hymns 4.28, 5.34, 8.27, 8.47, 8.93 and 10.127, and in sections 10.1 and 12.4 of the Atharvaveda A deity named Durgi appears in section 10.1.7 of the Taittiriya Aranyaka. While the Vedic literature uses the word Durga, the description therein lacks legendary details about her or about Durga Puja that is found in later Hindu literature.

A key text associated with Durga Puja is Devi Mahatmya, which is recited during the festival. Durga was likely well established by the time this Hindu text was composed, the date of which scholars estimate as between 400 and 600 CE. The Devi Mahatmya scripture describes the nature of evil forces symbolised by Mahishasura as shape-shifting, deceptive, and adapting in nature, in form and in strategy to create difficulties and thus achieve their evil ends. Durga calmly understands and counters the evil in order to achieve her solemn goals. Durga, in her various forms, appears as an independent deity in the Indian texts.

In the Mahabharata, both Yudhisthira and Arjuna invoke hymns to Durga. She appears in Harivamsa in the form of Vishnu's eulogy and in Pradyumna's prayer. The prominent mention of Durga in such epics may have led to her worship. A display of sculpture-idols depicting Rama and Narada praying with Durga

Maa Durga Rudra Roop at Gosani Jatra Puri

Some versions of the Puranas mention Durga Puja to be a spring festival, while the Devi-Bhagavata Purana and two other Shakta Puranas mentions it to be an autumn festival. The Ramayana manuscripts are also inconsistent. Versions of Ramayana found in the north, west, and south of the Indian subcontinent describe Rama to be remembering Surya (the Hindu sun god) before his battle against Ravana, but the Bengali manuscripts of Ramayana, such as the Krittivasi Ramayana, a 15th-century manuscript by Krittivasa, mention Rama to be worshipping Durga. As per the legend, Rama worshipped Durga in the autumn to have her blessings before defeating Ravana. While he was preparing for the worship of the goddess, Durga hid one of the 108 flowers of lotus, very essential for her worship. Having found only 107 of 108 lotuses at the time of the worship, Rama decided to offer one of his eyes in place of that lotus. When he was about to offer his eye, Durga appeared and told him that she had only hidden the flower in order to test his devotion and she was satisfied with it. She blessed Rama and he continued with her worship. Since the gods are believed to be sleeping during autumn, the awakening rite of the Durga puja is also known as akāla bodhana.

Surviving manuscripts from the 14th-century provide guidelines for Durga Puja, while historical records suggest the royalty and wealthy families to be sponsoring major Durga Puja public festivities, since at least the 16th-century. The 11th or 12th-century Jain text Yasatilaka by Somadeva mentions an annual festival dedicated to a warrior goddess, celebrated by the king and his armed forces, and the description mirrors attributes of Durga Puja.

According to some scholars, the worship of the fierce warrior goddess Durga, and her darker and more violent manifestation Kali, became popular in the Bengal region during and after the medieval era, marked by Muslim invasions and conquests.

The significance of Durga and other goddesses in Hindu culture is stated to have increased after Islamic armies conquered regions of the Indian subcontinent. According to yet other scholars, the marginalisation of Bengali Hindus during the medieval era led to a reassertion of Hindu identity and an emphasis on Durga Puja as a social festival, publicly celebrating the warrior goddess.From the medieval era up to present-day, Durga Puja has been celebrated as a socio-cultural event, while maintaining the roots of religious worship.

Rituals and practices-                                                                                                                                   From top left to bottom right Structure of a Durga sculpture-idol being made at Kumortuli; Lady carrying offerings for the puja; Sandhi puja on the day of Ashtami; Immersion of the sculpture-idol on Vijaya Dashami.

Texts-                                                                                                                                                             The puja rituals involve mantras, shlokas (holy verses), chants and arati, and offerings. The worship begins with a reading of the Sanskrit Devī Mahātmya from the sixth-century Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa. The shlokas and mantras praise the divinity of the goddess; according to the shlokas, Durga is omnipresent as the embodiment of power, nourishment, memory, forbearance, faith, forgiveness, intellect, wealth, emotions, desires, beauty, satisfaction, righteousness, fulfilment and peace.

Relation to harvest- Durga Puja as a harvest festival                                                                                    Om you are rice, Om you are life, you are the life of the gods, you are our life, your are our internal life, you are long life, you give life, Om the Sun with his rays.

Hymn to start the Durga Puja, Durga Puja is, in part, a post-monsoon harvest festival observed on the same days in the Shaktism tradition of Hinduism as those in its other traditions. The practice of including a bundle of nine different plants, called navapatrika, as a symbolism of Durga, is a testament practice to its agricultural importance. The typically selected plants include not only representative important crops, but also non-crops. This probably signifies the Hindu belief that the goddess is "not merely the power inherent in the growth of crops but the power inherent in all vegetation".

The festival is a social and public event in the eastern and northeastern states of India, where it dominates religious and socio-cultural life, with temporary pandals built at community squares, roadside shrines, and temples. The festival is also observed by some Shakta Hindus as a private home-based festival.

Before Durga puja there is Paata Puja, the ritual of making an idol on the day of the Rath Yatra, usually around July. 'Paata' is the wooden frame that forms the base for the idols.

Day One-                                                                                                                                                      Durga Puja is a ten-day event. The festival begins with Mahalaya, a day on which Hindus perform tarpaṇa by offering water and food to their dead ancestors. The day also marks the arrival of Durga from her marital home in Kailash.

The festival starts at twilight with prayers to Saraswati. She is believed to be another aspect of goddess Durga. This is also the day when the eyes are painted of the deities on the representative clay sculpture-idols, bringing them to a lifelike appearance. The day also marks prayers to Ganesha and visit to pandals and temples.

Day Two to Five-                                                                                                                                          Day two to five mark the remembrance of the goddess and her manifestations, such as Kumari (goddess of fertility), Mai (mother), Ajima (grandmother), Lakshmi (goddess of wealth) and in some regions as the Saptamatrikas (seven mothers) or Navadurga. On the sixth day major festivities and social celebrations start. The first nine days overlap with Navaratri festivities in other traditions of Hinduism. The specific practices vary by region.

Day Six to Nine-                                                                                                                                            The next significant day of the festival is the sixth day (Shashthi), on which devotees welcomes the goddess and festive celebrations are inaugurated. Rituals typically performed on the sixth day include:

Bodhana: Involves rites to awaken and welcome the goddess to be a guest. The amorphous sight of the goddess is consecrated into a ghata or noggin while the visible sight is consecrated into the murti or idol. These rituals are known as ghatasthapana and pranapratistha respectively.

Adhivasa: Anointing ritual wherein symbolic offerings are made to Durga, with each item representing a remembrance of subtle forms of her.

On the seventh day (Saptami), eighth (Ashtami) and ninth (Navami) days, the goddess along with Lakshmi, Saraswati, Ganesha, and Kartikeya are revered and these days mark the main days of worship with recitation of scriptures, puja, legends of Durga in Devi Mahatmya, social visits to elaborately decorated and illuminated pandals (temporary structures meant for hosting the puja), among others.

Navapatrika snan: Bathing of the navapatrika with holy water done on the seventh day of the festival.

Sandhi puja and Ashtami pushpanjali: The eighth day begins with elaborate pushpanjali rituals. The cusp of the ending of the eighth day and beginning of the ninth day is considered to be the moment when per scriptures Durga engaged in a fierce battle against Mahishasura and was attacked by the demons Chanda and Munda. Goddess Chamunda emerged from the third eye of Durga and killed Chanda and Munda at the cusp of Ashtami and Navami, the eighth and ninth days respectively. This moment is marked by the sandhi puja, involving the offering of 108 lotuses and lighting of 108 lamps. It is a forty-eight minutes long ritual commemorating the climax of battle. The rituals are performed in the last 24 minutes of Ashtami and the first 24 minutes of Navami. In some regions, devotees sacrifice an animal such as a buffalo or goat, but in many regions, there is not an actual animal sacrifice and a symbolic sacrifice substitutes it. The surrogate effigy is smeared in red vermilion to symbolise the blood spilled. The goddess is then offered food (bhog). Some places also engage in devotional service.

Day Ten-                                                                                                                                                    Sindoor khela and immersion: The tenth and last day, called Vijaya Dashami is marked by sindoor khela, where women smear sindoor or vermillion on the sculpture-idols and also smear each other with it. This ritual signifies the wishing of a blissful marital life for married women. Historically the ritual has been restricted to married women. The tenth day is the day when Durga emerged victorious against Mahishasura and it ends with a procession where the clay sculpture-idols are ceremoniously taken to a river or coast for immersion rites. Following the immersion, Durga is believed to return to her mythological marital home of Kailasa to Shiva and the cosmos in general. People distribute sweets and gifts, visit their friends and family members on the tenth day. Some communities such as those near Varanasi mark the day after Vijaya Dashami, called Ekadashi, by visiting a Durga temple.

Women at Nowgong Bengali Association Durga Puja joyfully smear each other with Vermillion as part of the exuberant Durga Puja festival celebrations in Nagaon, Assam, India.

Dhunuchi naach and dhuno pora: Dhunuchi naach involves a dance ritual performed with dhunuchi (incense burner). Drummers called dhakis, carrying large leather-strung Dhaks, Dhols and other traditional drums depending on the region, to create music, to which people dance either during or not during arati. Some places, especially home pujas, also observe dhuno pora, a ritual involving married women carrying dhunuchis burning with incense and dried coconuts, on a cloth on their head and hands,

Decorations, sculptures, and stages

From top left to bottom right (a) A craftsperson sculpting the face of the sculpture-idol; (b) Durga Puja pandal decorations in Kolkata; (c) Interior decorations of a pandal; (d) Street lights installed during the festivities.

The process of the creation of clay sculpture-idols (pratima or murti) for the puja, from the collection of clay to the ornamentation is a ceremonial process. Though the festival is observed post-monsoon harvest, the artisans begin making the sculpture-idols months before, during summer. The process begins with prayers to Ganesha and to the perceived divinity in materials such as bamboo frames in which the sculpture-idols are cast.

Durga statue being made-                                                                                                                              Clay, or alluvial soil, collected from different regions form the base. This choice is a tradition wherein Durga, perceived as the creative energy and material, is believed to be present everywhere and in everything in the universe. In certain traditions in Kolkata, a custom is to include soil samples in the clay mixture for Durga from areas believed to be nishiddho pallis.

The clay base is combined with straw, kneaded, and then moulded into a cast made from hay and bamboo. This is layered to a fine final shape, cleaned, painted, and polished. A layer of a fibre called jute, mixed in with clay, is also attached to the top to prevent the statue from cracking in the months ahead. The heads of the statues are more complex and are usually made separately. The limbs of the statues are mostly shaped from bundles of straws. Then, starting about August, the local artisans hand-paint the sculpture-idols which are later dressed in clothing, are decorated and bejewelled, and displayed at the puja altars.

The procedure for and proportions of the sculpture-idols are described in arts-related Sanskrit texts of Hinduism, such as the Vishvakarma Sashtra.

Environmental impact- A Durga sculpture-idol in the river, post-immersion.                                      The sculpture-idols for the puja are traditionally made of biodegradable materials such as straw, clay, soil, and wood. In today's times, brighter coloured statues have increased in popularity and have diversified the use of non-biodegradable, cheaper or more colourful substitute synthetic raw materials. Environmental activists have raised concerns about the paint used to produce the statue, stating that the heavy metals in these paints pollute rivers when the statues are immersed at the end of the Durga festival.

Brighter colours that are also biodegradable and eco-friendly, as well as the traditional natural colours, are typically more expensive compared to the non biodegradable paints. The Indian state of West Bengal has banned the use of hazardous paints, and various state government have started distributing lead-free paints to artisans at no cost to prevent pollution.

Sacrifice of a buffalo during Durga Puja, in Assam.

Shakta Hindu communities mark the slaying of Mahishasura and the victory of Durga with a symbolic or actual sacrifice. Most communities prefer symbolic sacrifice, where a statue of the asura is made of flour or equivalent, is immolated and smeared with vermilion, symbolic of the blood that had spilled during the battle. Other substitutes include a vegetable or a sweet dish considered equivalent to the animal. In certain instances, devotees consider animal sacrifice distasteful, and practice alternate means of expressing devotion while respecting the views of others in their tradition.

In communities performing actual sacrifice, an animal is sacrificed, mainly at temples. In Nepal, West Bengal, Odisha and Assam, animal sacrifices are performed at Shakta temples to commemorate the legend of Durga slaying Mahishasura. This involves slaying of a fowl, pig, goat, or male water-buffalo. Large scale animal sacrifices are rare among Hindus outside the regions of Bengal, Odisha, Assam, and Nepal. In these regions, festivals are primarily when significant animal sacrifices are observed.

The Rajputs of Rajasthan worship their weapons and horses in the related festival of Navaratri, and some historically observed the sacrifice of a goat, a practice that continues in some places. The sacrifice ritual, supervised he the priest, requires slaying of the animal with a single stroke. In the past this ritual was considered a rite of passage into manhood and readiness as a warrior. The Kuldevi among these Rajput communities is a warrior goddess, with local legends tracing reverence for her during Rajput-Muslim wars.

History of India

                               

India is considered one of the oldest countries in human history. The written history heredates back to 2,500 years ago, and according to other evidence, there has been human existence and history in India since 70,000 years ago. The history of India has remained rich and powerful. From ancient times to modern times, many dynasties have come to power in India. This dynasty ruled India for a long time. The most effective and powerful of these dynasties was the Maurya Empire . The Maurya Empire , also known as the Gupta Empire, was the first effective central government in India. It was the first centralized government in the country. During this period, the rulers brought a large territory under their control andtried to create a welfare system for the people .

The Stone Age murals at Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh are the oldest evidence of human existence. According to archaeologists, early humans entered India about 70,000 years ago. Around 9,000 years ago, rural and urban human settlements began in India and gradually evolved into the Indus Valley Civilization on the banks of the Indus River. The Indus Valley Civilization is considered to have begun around 3500 BC . The Indus Valley Civilization began in the northwestern region of India, in what is now Pakistan . The excavated cities of Mohenjodaro and Harappa , although located in Pakistan today, are considered part of Indian history. These cities were discovered by Dayaramji Sahni . Some historians believe that the Indus Valley Civilization was destroyed by successive invasions by Aryan tribes from Europe and Central Asia , which led to the Vedic period. Earlier researchers believed that the Harappa and Mohenjodaro civilizations were one and the same. 

Although this is a matter of debate, there is no doubt that the Indus Valley Civilization and the events of the Vedic period took place on the banks of the Indus and Saraswati rivers . The Saraswati river disappeared due to surface changes over time . It has been proven from scientific evidence that the ancient Saraswati river flowed through Punjab , Rajasthan and Kutch , Gujarat . The roots of Indian civilization were planted during the Vedic period. During the Middle Vedic period, the Vedic culture of the Indus Valley spread to the Ganges valley. The period from 1000 BC to 600 BC is generally considered to be the post-Vedic period . During this period, Janapadas came into existence. These Janapadas were small kingdoms . These Janapadas are groups of people. The "Dasaragyna War" on the banks of the Ravi river is famous among the leaders of these groups. The "Dasaragyna War" on the banks of the Ravi river was lived along with the groups of these Vedic people. These districts were spread from present-day Afghanistan in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent to Bihar , Bengal , Odisha in the east and Maharashtra in the south . 

Some part of present-day Maharashtra was covered by these districts at that time . Sanskrit The names of these Janapadas are found in Pali and Ardhamagadhi literature . Information about them is also available from the writings of Greek historians. Some of them had a monarchy in the post , while others had a republican system. At that time , 16 such Janapadas existed. In the Janapadas that were republics, the members of the council called Gana Parishad , the eldest person , used to discuss together and take decisions related to the administration of the state. The hall where such discussions took place was called Santagara . '''Gautama Buddha''' was the prince of the Shakya Republic in Nepal . Separate coins of each Janapada were in circulation. The mention of Janapadas comes from the ancient religious literature of the time. In this, Janapadas and republics are mentioned in the Tripitaka of Buddhism and the texts of Jainism . The Kosala Mahajanapada was spread over the foothills of the Himalayas in Nepal and Uttar Pradesh. The cities of Sravasti, Kushavati and Saket were famous in this state. Sravasti was the capital of the Kosala Mahajanapada. Gautama Buddha stayed for a long time in the famous monastery of Chetvani in Sravasti. 

The Kosala king Prasenjit was a contemporary of Vardhman Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. The kingdom of Kosala merged with Magadha . Like Kosala, Vatsa , Avanti and Magadha also existed as large Mahajanapadas . To the north of Magadha was the Lichchhavi kingdom of Vrujji . Vaishali was its capital. The king of Magadha conquered the Lichchhavi kingdom and merged it with Magadha. The Vatsa Mahajanapada expanded to the region around Prayag in Uttar Pradesh . Kosam, which would become the ancient Kaushambi , was an important trading center. Three very wealthy merchants from Kaushambi had built three monasteries for Gautama Buddha and his followers . King Udayana was a contemporary of Gautam Buddha. After King Udayana , the independent existence of the Vatsa Mahajana post did not last long. It was conquered by the king of the Avanti Mahajana post. The place of the post has been important in the history of ancient India. It was through the emergence of the Janapadas of this period that the sovereign As this power took shape, a great expansion of power took place in its territories, and many glorious kingdoms were formed in the countries.

In the 3rd century BC, after the invasion of the Greek emperor Alexander , many political changes took place. Alexander conquered part of India up to the Ganges valley and appointed his Greek governors there . After leaving India, he died in Greece . After Alexander 's death, uprisings began in the Indian territories under Greek control. The historical history of India begins from here. Chandragupta Maurya, with the help of the Aryan Chanakya , founded the Maurya Empire of Magadha . Before that, he defeated the last king of the Nanda dynasty in Magadha, Dhanananda . The Maurya Empire reached its peak with his grandson Emperor Ashoka . It expanded to the western borders of India. After the human cruelty in the Kalinga War, Ashoka followed the path of peace and non-violence and accepted Buddhism. Buddhism spread widely in India during this period. The Mauryan emperors after Ashoka were not very influential, which led to the decline of the Mauryan Empire. The last Mauryan emperor, Bruhadrata, was assassinated by his general Pushyamitra Shuga and the Shuga dynasty was established. Some time later, the Shuga minister Vasudeva Kanva assassinated the Shuga king and the Kanva dynasty was established. After the fall of the Mauryan Empire, several Greek invasions occurred in northern India for some time. For some time, some parts of India were under Greek rule. The Gupta Empire , founded in the 3rd century, ruled most of India for a long time. The Satavahana dynasty established its power and empire. This period is considered the Golden Age of India. 

During this period, the long-standing influence of Buddhism gradually declined and the earlier Vedic religion was rebuilt in a different form. Pratishthan (present-day Paithan ) in Maharashtra was their capital. Around the 9th century CE, the rule of the Gurjar Pratiharas was established in Uttar Pradesh. Kannauj was their capital. India made great strides in the fields of literature , mathematics , science , philosophy, etc. India was a very advanced country in terms of trade during this period. Many empires emerged in South India. The Pandyas of Tamil Nadu , The progress in art and architecture of the Chola Empire , Chera , Vijayanagara Empire /State, Satavahanas in Maharashtra , Yadavs , Vidarbha is still noticeable today. The ancient cities of Ajanta , Verula , Hampi , and ancient temples in the South were built during this period. The expansion of the Chola Empire reached Indonesia in Southeast Asia . The Chalukya , Rashtrakuta , Parmar , Kakatiya , and Hoysala kingdoms emerged. Like the Greeks, the Shakas , Huns , and Kushanas also invaded India . The temples built by the Chandel Rajput dynasty in Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh are famous.

In the 11th century, the Arab general Muhammad bin Qasim of Iran invaded the Sindh province and defeated the Dahir king there and captured the province. After this, many Islamic invasions came and Islamic rule was imposed on a large part of India. Many states of India were economically very advanced. The main objective of the Islamic invasions was to seize power and plunder. A ruler named Mahmud of Ghazni planned 17 campaigns of plunder in India. Historians state that the siege of Delhi by the Mongol emperor Timur Lang was the most brutal incident in human history. Afghan ruler Muhammad Ghori invaded India. He clashed with Prithviraj Chauhan, a Rajput king of Ajaymeru (present-day Ajmer ). After eight wars, Prithviraj Chauhan died. Muhammad Ghori appointed his slave Qutubuddin Aibak as the governor of the conquered Indian territory. Muhammad Ghori later returned to Afghanistan. After the death of Muhammad Ghori, Qutubuddin declared his independence. His successors ruled India for the next few years. Later, his general Jalaluddin Khilji revolted against him and seized power. In the 13th century, his nephew Alauddin Khilji treacherously assassinated him and became the ruler. He ruled from Afghanistan to Bengal . The history of Rajput Raja Ratan Singh of Chittor in Rajasthan and Queen Padmavati is not to be forgotten. From the Delhi Sultanate to the Mughals, many Islamic kingdoms emerged. Hasan Gangu Bahamani established the Bahamani Empire/State in Maharashtra. 

Some parts of North Karnataka were also included in this empire/state. There was conflict between the Bahamani Empire/State and the Vijayanagar Empire/State. Later, the Bahamani Empire/State was divided into five parts. The Nizamshahi of Ahmednagar , the Adilshahi of Bijapur , the Qutubshahi of Golconda , the Imadshahi of Ellichpur (present-day Achalpur ) , and the Baridshahi of Bidar were formed. They also struggled for the expansion of the empire. Four of these five kingdoms attacked Vijayanagar and put an end to it. In the power struggle among themselves, the kingdoms of Ellichpur and Bidar were destroyed over time. The Mughal Emperor /Emperor Shah Jahan The Nizamshahi of Ahmednagar was conquered. There was a struggle between the Mughals and the Islamic states of South India for the expansion of the empire. During the Mughal rule, some Rajput states challenged the Mughals. The Sikh Empire/State was established in Punjab under the leadership of Maharaj Ranjit Singh . The Maratha Empire, Swarajya was established in Maharashtra under the leadership of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj , whose main objective was to re-establish the rule of the natives in India. After the death of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb , son of Shah Jahan , the Mughal Empire began to decline. 

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj resisted the Mughals and the Adilshahi of Bijapur in South India and the Qutubshahi of Golconda, and the three foreign powers , the English, the French, and the Portuguese . Among them, he signed a treaty of friendship with the Qutubshahi and the French. After the death of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, Aurangzeb/Mughals attacked/attacked the Maratha kingdom. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj's son Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj fought with the Mughals. Aurangzeb treacherously captured Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj and killed him. After the death of Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj, Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj led the Marathas. When the Mughal general Diler Khan besieged and conquered Raigad , the capital of the Marathas, Rajaram Maharaj had to leave Raigad and flee to Jinji in Tamil Nadu . Rajaram Maharaj died due to natural illness. Aurangzeb imprisoned Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj's wife Yesubai and son Shahu . After the death of Aurangzeb, the Mughals freed Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj and Maharani Yesubai to create division among the Marathas. 

Chhatrapati Shahu and Maharani Yesubai were freed. Shahu and Shahu defeated Tarabai in the war of Rajaram's wife Tarabai . The Maratha kingdom was divided. After that, the Peshwas gradually started expanding the Maratha empire. After the Maratha Empire, the Peshwas came and established their main capital in Pune . The Peshwas were established in Maharashtra. The Peshwas became the rulers of the Maratha Empire. The first Bajirao Peshwa was a talented politician. His dream was to rule up to the Himalayas. During the reign of Nanasaheb, the son of the first Bajirao Peshwa, the Peshwas began to fall after a crushing defeat in the third battle of Panipat against the Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah Abdali . The European imperialists benefited the most from this. Since the sixteenth century, many European countries had established colonies using trade as an excuse and they expanded their imperialist empires.The policy was moving forward. The British , Portuguese , French , Dutch were struggling to assert their dominance in India. 

The British, naturally, with their developed weapons and war skills as well as diplomacy and political intrigue, gradually brought all the states of India under their rule. Starting from Bengal , the Sultan of Mysore in Karnataka , Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan , the Maratha Empire in 1818, the Sikh kingdom/empire and the Jat kingdoms/empires in Punjab around 1850, enslaved almost the entire India under the rule of the East India Company. The East India Company government, in turn, exploited India economically. The French/French captured Padicherry and Chandranagar and the Portuguese captured Goa , Diu , Daman and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. Their Mandalic states /states of India rejected their adopted heirs and made them Khalsa. In 1857, Indian soldiers in the British army revolted, and its repercussions spread throughout India. Although the revolt against the British failed, the desire to gain independence from the British was awakened among Indians. After the revolt, the administration of India was transferred from the East India Company to the British government of England .

Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru with Mahatma Gandhi in 1937                                                                          Under the leadership of Lokmanya Tilak , the Indian National Congress launched a national independence movement in the early twentieth century . After Tilak's death in 1920, Gandhi took over the reins of the movement and carried out many movements through non-violence and non-cooperation. Some armed revolutionary organizations also emerged. Finally, after the Second World War, India gained independence from Britain on 15 August 1947 , but for this, the Muslim- majority part of today's Pakistan and Bangladesh had to be separated. This history of partition is very sad. The creator of modern India and a unique multi-faceted scholar , Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, wrote the world's greatest and largest Constitution of India in just 3 years, despite his health, with great effort . The author of the Constitution, Babasaheb, submitted the ' Constitution of India ' to the Constituent Assembly on 26 November 1949 . And on January 26, 1950 , the implementation of the Indian Constitution began, India became a republic and today it is the largest democratic country in the world. India became a federation . After 1956, linguistic provinces were formed in India. France handed over its Indian colonies to India after a referendum in the colonies . India had to fight the Portuguese. In 1961, India sent its army and liberated Goa , Diu , Daman and Dadra and Nagar Haveli from the Portuguese yoke.

After independence, India has moved forward with a moderate pace of economic and social reforms. Terrorism / terrorism has become a major security issue in India due to the violence in Jammu and Kashmir and Punjab in the 1980s and the violence and poverty-stricken tribal areas in the northeastern states of Assam , Manipur , Mizoram , and Nagaland . Since 1990, terrorist/terrorism attacks have occurred in various cities of India. India has disputes over its borders with China and Pakistan, which led to wars in 1962 , 1947 , 1965 , 1971 , and 1999. India is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the United Nations . In 1974 and 1998, India successfully conducted underground nuclear tests at Pokhran in Rajasthan and proved itself as a nuclear power. After 1991, India has made rapid economic progress after adopting economic reforms. India has made significant achievements in the software sector in particular. Gol Gum Islamic Architecture.

Ancient Indus Valley Civilization- Brahmin king in the Indus Valley Civilization                                      The Indus Valley Civilization is a Chalcolithic civilization of India. It was primarily located along the Indus River, the Saraswati River, and its tributaries (the five major rivers of Punjab). It also flourished from the Ganges and Yamuna basins to northern Afghanistan. Evidence for the existence of the Indus Valley Civilization was brought to light by Dayaram Sahni in 1921. In the same year, experimental excavations were carried out at Harappa in Punjab, which revealed the Chalcolithic nature of the Indus Valley Civilization. Rakhaldas Banerjee discovered Mohenjo-daro in 1922. After this, Sir John Marshall (Director General of the Department of Archaeology, 1902–1928), E. J. H. Mackay, Madhoswarup Vats , Sir Mortimer Wheeler, etc. Researchers conducted extensive excavations. In addition, the survey revealed many ancient sites of the Indus Valley Civilization in Sindh-Punjab (present-day Pakistan). Since the Indus Valley was the repository of this Chalcolithic civilization, it was named the Indus Valley Civilization or Harappan Civilization.